Chapter 7: Bioactive Compounds

By Amy A. Drescher, PhD, RDN

Introduction

Bioactive compounds are nonessential biomolecules present in foods, spices, and beverages that can influence metabolic processes and promote health but are not required for growth. Phytochemicals, also called phytonutrients, include polyphenols, terpenes, and organosulfur compounds that give fruits and vegetables their distinct flavors, odors, and colors, which is why “eat a colorful” diet is practical advice aimed at ensuring the consumption of a range of bioactive compounds.^1,2

There are likely many more as-yet unidentified phytochemicals in food. Other important bioactive components in foods include probiotics, omega-3 fatty acids, isoflavones, sterols, and stanols.

The potential benefits of various diet patterns are discussed in chapter 8. Although culinary medicine seeks to promote a healthy eating pattern and does not necessarily promote 1 diet over another, the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet and Mediterranean diet have emerged as examples of eating patterns with multiple benefits for health promotion, disease prevention, and treatment.³ It has been hypothesized that the presence of multiple bioactive compounds in these diet patterns may be playing key roles mechanistically in the numerous health benefits that have been demonstrated.

Bioactive compounds have multiple mechanisms of action, often acting synergistically to promote health effects. Any diet that promotes a variety of nutrient-rich whole foods should provide a wide range of bioactive compounds, although bioavailability does vary among plant varieties and can be affected by farming practices and food preparation techniques.¹

Differences among individuals—including hereditary factors, past medical history, and lifestyle habits—can further affect how bioactive components are absorbed and metabolized and, ultimately, how they exert their effects within the body. Culinary medicine encourages diets inclusive of bioactive compounds that create overall nutritious eating patterns with a focus on preventing diet-sensitive disease.

Bioactive Compounds

You’re likely familiar with the term “superfoods,” which identifies nutritious foods highly regarded for their positive impact on health. You may have experimented with integrating more of these foods into your diet. Supermarkets stock their shelves with the latest superfoods, and restaurants, recipe developers, and social media influencers also promote the latest superfood trends.

Have you wondered if there is scientific support behind the hype? Although the popularity of so-called superfoods can partly be attributed to effective marketing by skilled influencers, the public’s tendency to seek out the latest nutrition quick fixes and easy answers to complex health questions is also at play. Most experts would likely agree that the concept of superfoods has been overhyped; however, it turns out that the concept is not entirely without scientific merit. However, it is important to recognize that there are many health-promoting foods to choose from, regardless of whether they are labeled a superfood.

What makes a food earn the title of “super”? Even though there isn’t a standardized, scientific definition of the term superfood, there is an entry for it in the Merriam-Webster Dictionary describing a superfood as rich in compounds considered beneficial to a person’s health.⁴ Nutrition experts refer to these health-promoting compounds as bioactive compounds, or secondary metabolites (see Table 7.1).¹

Some of the most impactful bioactive compounds come from the more than 5,000 identified phytonutrients that have been discovered in plants.² However, it’s believed that there are many more phytochemicals yet to be identified.²

Types of Bioactive Compounds

Some of the most well-researched bioactive compounds are phytonutrients, including polyphenols, carotenoids, terpenes, and organosulfur compounds. Other examples of bioactive compounds in food include omega-3 fatty acids, fibers, prebiotics, probiotics, sterols, and stanols (see Table 7.1). This chapter explores some of the major bioactive compounds identified in the foods we eat, highlights some of the scientific evidence of their potential health benefits, and discusses applications in culinary medicine.

Table 7.1. Bioactive Compounds

Bioactive food component	Food sources	Health benefits
Phytoestrogens	Soybeans, flaxseeds, oats, beans, lentils, apples, barley	Help manage menopausal symptoms, bone health, cardiovascular health, cancer prevention5–10
Polyphenols	Green tea, berries, cocoa, red wine, beans, nuts, vegetables, grains, herbs, fruits, potato, turmeric, ginger, olive oil	Antioxidant properties, anti-inflammatory effects, protect against cancer, stroke, diabetes Alzheimer’s disease, and cardiovascular diseases.11–16
Prebiotics	Fruits, vegetables, whole grains, legumes, garlic, onions, leeks, cocoa	Provide fuel for beneficial bacteria in the gut. Indigestible carbohydrates, soluble fibers, and resistant starches in plant-based foods increase probiotic bacteria populations.17–19
Probiotics	Yogurt, kefir, fermented foods (e.g., miso, kimchi)	Improve gut health, enhance immune function, potential mental health benefits, metabolism improvements20–22
Carotenoids	Yellow, orange, and red fruits and vegetables, leafy greens, herbs, carrots, melons, tomatoes	Promote eye health, antioxidant properties, prevent cancer23–26
Omega-3 fatty acids	Fatty fish (e.g., salmon, mackerel), chia seeds, flaxseeds, enriched eggs	Cardiovascular support, brain health, relief from dry eye symptoms, help manage rheumatoid arthritis27–29
Terpenes	Citrus fruits, herbs and spices, cannabis	Anti-inflammatory, potential anticancer properties23,26
Sterols and stanols	Nuts, seeds, vegetable oils	Lowers cholesterol levels, immune-enhancing properties, anticancer1,2,10,30,31
Sulfur compounds	Garlic, onions, cruciferous vegetables	Antioxidant properties, potential anticancer effects, immune-enhancing properties, blood pressure regulation7,32

Over the past century, nutrition scientists have continued to investigate and debate what defines a healthy diet. In the past 25 years, the DASH and Mediterranean diets and their variations (see chapter 8) have emerged as examples of eating patterns that are beneficial in multiple areas of health and disease prevention and treatment.

Research has focused on the underlying mechanisms of these dietary patterns, which include lipid-lowering, anti-inflammatory, and metabolic effects on the gut microbiota. The DASH and Mediterranean diet patterns are based on a variety of nutrient-rich whole foods and reduction of more highly processed foods, simple sugars, and saturated fats. The Mediterranean diet also emphasizes the intake of fish, olive oil, fresh herbs, and wine. It is being increasingly recognized that the multiple bioactive compounds in these diet patterns are likely a main contributing factor in the many demonstrated health benefits²

In vitro and animal studies indicate that bioactive compounds exert multiple mechanisms of action, often acting synergistically to promote health effects.^3,33 For example, research on adding extra portions of foods rich in bioactive compounds, such as nuts and olive oil, to the Mediterranean diet have notably increased the risk reduction for cardiovascular and breast cancer compared with levels previously demonstrated.^3,34,35

Polyphenols

Polyphenols are naturally occurring plant phytochemicals that have health-promoting properties, including acting as a free radical scavenger and reactive oxygen species that counters oxidative damage that contributes to inflammation and associated diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and type 2 diabetes.¹² Polyphenols comprise several categories, including flavonoids, lignans, stilbenes, and phenolic acids. Each type has numerous subcategories (see Table 7.2).

Table 7.2. Polyphenol Categories and Health Benefits

Polyphenol type	Food sources	Facts and health benefits
Flavonoids	Citrus, grapes, berries, cherries, apples, currents, buckwheat, nuts, seeds, onions, broccoli, purple cabbage, blue potatoes, parsley, red peppers, mint, tea, cocoa	Two-thirds of polyphenols and most bioactive; antioxidant properties; anti-inflammatory effects; protect against cardiovascular disease (CVD), cancer, stroke, type 2 diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease.36–39
Phenolic acids	Fruits, vegetables, whole grains	Combat free radicals and protect against cancer, arthritis, autoimmune disorders, CVD, and neurodegenerative disease40–43
Other polyphenols	Ginger	Health effects are mainly attributed to gingerol, a phenolic compound used for antinausea, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties.44
Lignans	Extra-virgin olive oil, garlic, onions, vegetables, grains, fruits, seeds	Reduced risk of CVD and stroke11,45
Stilbenes	Grapes, berries, peanuts, red wine	Anti-inflammatory, promote cardiovascular health antioxidant properties13

There is an extensive amount of research on individual polyphenols, but it’s often unclear how it applies to habitual intakes of mixed diets. Diets rich in polyphenols are associated with a reduced risk of type 2 diabetes. Studies exploring their impact on CVD risk are ongoing, and findings have been largely positive.^13,14

Factors in the discrepancies include challenges common to nutrition research, including differences in methodologies, recall bias, genetic variations in metabolism, bioavailability among plant varieties, farming practices, and food preparation.² To address some of these challenges, a repository compiling science regarding polyphenolic compounds, their classifications, underlying mechanisms, and culinary implications, has been compiled into a comprehensive database called Phenol-Explorer.⁴⁶

 

Flavonoids

Flavonoids account for most of the dietary phenolic compounds and are the most bioactive.^38–40 Flavonoids can be further divided into 6 structural groups or families. Some of the most researched types include quercetin, catechins, and anthocyanins, which are present in fruits, vegetables, tea, and cocoa. The flavonoids found in berries and citrus fruits are potent antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents, which may protect against oxidative stress, chronic inflammation, and Alzheimer’s disease.^36–38

Flavonoids Subtypes

• Quercetin is contained in fruits, especially citrus, berries, cherries, and apples, and in buckwheat, nuts, seeds, onions, broccoli, olive oil, and green tea. Exhibits a strong potential for reducing the risk of CVD and certain cancers and preventing tissue injury.^37,39,47
• Curcumin is contained in the spice turmeric, which has been used in Eastern medicine for centuries, curcumin has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant mechanisms still being defined. Some research findings have been positive, whereas others have been inconclusive. One theory being investigated is that differences in the gut microbiome profile may influence the bioavailability and pharmacological activity of curcumin.⁴⁸ It has been discovered that adding an alkaloid agent in black pepper called piperine increases bioavailability of curcumin.⁴⁹
• Anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments responsible for red, purple, and blue fruits and vegetables such as berries, acai, currants, grapes, purple cabbage, and blue potatoes. Anthocyanins possess antioxidant, vasorelaxation, free radical scavenging, and antimicrobial activities that improve visual and neurological health and help prevent cancer and CVD.⁵⁰ Mild heat, such as blanching, is recommended when trying to preserve the bioactivity of foods high in anthocyanins.³⁶
• Flavones are considered some of the most powerful antioxidants and protect against reactive oxygen species.³⁶ Food sources include celery, parsley, red peppers, chamomile, mint, peels of citrus fruits, onions, and tea.^12,46,51,52

Phenolic acids

Subtypes of phenolic acids include caffeic acid and ferulic acid, which are widely distributed in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. Health benefits of ferulic acid include the ability to combat free radicals related to oxidative damage associated with chronic diseases such as cancer, arthritis, autoimmune disorders, CVD, and neurogenerative diseases.¹⁶

Isoflavones

Soybeans are the only commonly consumed food with a significant amount of isoflavones. There are many positive health effects from isoflavone intake, such as reduced bone loss and decreased osteoporosis risk.⁵ Soy protein intake greater than 10 g/day has been found to reduce fracture risk in postmenopausal women.⁹ Soy food intake over a lifetime is common in Japan, where women report significantly fewer menopause-related symptoms, such as hot flashes and night sweats, compared with women in countries in North America and Europe.⁶

Isoflavones have demonstrated cardiovascular benefits such as decreasing blood lipid levels, inflammation, and hypertension.⁹ Soy intake has been associated with both a reduction of breast cancer risk and risk of its recurrence.^7–10 However, there may be differences in breast cancer risk with isoflavone intake, due to genetic factors.⁸

Isoflavone Subtypes

• Stilbenes are phenolic compounds found in just a few plants, such as grapes, berries, and peanuts. Some health-promoting effects of stilbenes include inhibiting transcription factors involved in inflammation and inducing antioxidant enzymes.⁵³ Resveratrol, the most well-researched stilbene, is found primarily in grapes and red wine. It has gained considerable attention for its potential to promote cardiovascular health and longevity. Resveratrol has been associated with the so-called French paradox—the surprising lower incidence of heart disease in France despite a high intake of saturated fats.³⁹
• Lignans are the second most abundant polyphenol present in extra-virgin olive oil, which has been associated with reduction of risk of CVD and stroke in numerous large-scale human studies.^11,45 Other notable lignan sources are garlic, onions, vegetables, grains, fruits, and seeds.⁴⁶

Sulfur compounds

Sulfur compounds are a group of bioactive compounds found predominantly in cruciferous vegetables, such as cabbage, bok choy, kale, and broccoli, and in garlic, onions, leeks, and shallots. These compounds are responsible for the characteristic pungent aroma and taste of these foods, but they also serve as antioxidants and fight inflammation, promoting cardiovascular health, enhancing aspects of immune function, and assisting in halting cancer cell development.^32,42,54

There are several organosulfur compounds that influence heart health, including allicin, found in garlic. Allicin promotes the production of nitric oxide in blood vessels, which helps them relax and improves blood flow to lower blood pressure and reduce the risk of hypertension.²⁴ Allicin also inhibits formation of cholesterol plaques; thus, it can reduce the risk of atherosclerosis. Allicin also has antiplatelet properties that can prevent excessive blood clotting and blockages.⁵⁵

Sulfur compounds have been associated with potential anticancer effects such as antioxidant effects and inducing apoptosis in cancer cells, as well as inhibiting tumor growth and spread (i.e., metastasis). Sulfur compounds may also inhibit the formation of carcinogens and act to detoxify potential carcinogens in the body.⁷

To maximize the bioactive components in sulforaphanes, meals containing raw or gently steamed cruciferous vegetables are recommended.² Sulfur compounds offer unique flavors and health-enhancing properties. It is important to note that the bioactive components of foods with organosulfur compounds are only released through cutting, chewing, or crushing, which causes activation of the compounds to their bioactive forms.³²

Research on the health benefits of garlic has revealed the benefits of using the bioactive-rich garlic skin, which is typically discarded, and informed development of newer varieties of garlic, such as purple varieties, with additional bioactive compounds that can be used in culinary medicine interventions and dishes.¹

Phytosterols and Stanols

Phytosterols are plant counterparts of cholesterol in animals.¹ The most common bioactive phytosterols are beta-sitosterol, campesterol, and sigmasterol.¹⁰ Plant stanols are similar in structure but much less common in the diet, representing approximately 10% of phytosterol dietary intake.³¹

The main food sources are nuts, seeds, unrefined plant oils, and legumes, which are sometimes referred to as pulses and beans. It is believed that early human diets were rich in phytosterols, but the typical Western diet is relatively low in these compounds.⁵² After phytosterols are absorbed in the small intestine, where they interfere with the absorption of dietary cholesterol by displacing cholesterol and by facilitating excretion of cholesterol in the feces.³⁰

There has been significant research interest in the past 20 years in using foods with supplemental phytosterols to decrease serum levels of low-density lipoprotein.³⁰ Although research on phytosterols’ anti-inflammatory effects and their effects on cancer cells have shown promise in cell culture and animal studies, human research is in the preliminary stages.³¹

Probiotics and Prebiotics

Probiotics are a unique category of essential bioactive food components that mainly arise from various fermented foods, including yogurt, kefir, sauerkraut, and kimchi, or can be added to foods such as juices, protein bars, dairy products, cereals, and prunes (see Table 7.3). Fermentation techniques create various textures and flavors and also result in populations of beneficial bacteria that enhance the amount and diversity of intestinal bacteria that compose the microbiota.¹⁹

Prebiotics are indigestible carbohydrates (types of dietary fiber) that are fermented in the colon and stimulate the growth or activity of specific types of beneficial bacteria.^17–19,21 Dietary fibers in foods cannot be digested by human enzymes, but they can serve as fuel for gut bacteria and lead to both improvements in nutrient absorption and enhancement of the bacterial environment in the gut.¹⁸ Food sources of prebiotics include cocoa, garlic, onions, leeks, whole grains, seeds, nuts, pulses, and other fruits and vegetables.^19,21 Much is still being investigated about the role and mechanism of prebiotics before specific recommendations can be made.

The diversity and balance of the gut microbiota play a crucial role in digestive function and general health.¹⁹ The human microbiota consists of 10 trillion to 100 trillion symbiotic cells.¹⁷ Microbiome projects worldwide are researching the roles these bacteria may have in maintaining health and well-being.

Although much of the research is focused on individual strains of bacteria given as supplements, foods can potentially provide a variety of live cultures, and there is some evidence they survive digestion.^21,56 However, there remain many questions about the ability to change the microbiota, and research is ongoing. One of the most researched uses of probiotics is to help promote gut health by decreasing unpleasant gastrointestinal symptoms such as diarrhea.²² An emerging area of probiotic research is the potential to enhance nutrient production. Certain probiotics can produce B vitamins and short-chain fatty acids, which have numerous health benefits, such as enhancing intestinal energy metabolism, homeostasis, and intestinal barrier function.¹⁸ This suggests a role for probiotics to contribute to the nutrient pools in the body.

Research is ongoing, with topics related to the interrelationships between the gut microbiome and the gastrointestinal tract, the immune system, neurological systems, and brain through various signaling systems.¹⁹ Disturbances of the microbiota are being investigated to determine if there are potential relationships between neurological, mental health, and gastrointestinal disorders. Probiotics also help prevent the overgrowth of pathogenic species and maintain a healthy balance in the microbial environment of the gut.²⁰ This becomes especially relevant when antibiotic treatments are used, because they can impair the diversity of the gut bacteria.¹⁷

Current research is examining relationships between probiotic intake and gut and mental well-being, known as the gut-brain axis (Figure 7.4). Data suggest that probiotics affect mental health by modulating the gut microbiota and producing neurotransmitters and metabolites that favorably influence brain function.¹⁷ Some studies have suggested probiotics have a role in mood enhancement, reduction of depression symptoms, improved anxiety, and cognitive abilities.¹⁹

Table 7.3. Probiotic Food Sources

Probiotic food source	Definition	Probiotic-related health benefits
Yogurt, Greek yogurt	Varied amounts of minimum of 100 million CFU to have a Live and Active Cultures Seal	Varied number of beneficial bacteria (Lactobacillus bulgaris and Streptococcus thermophiles are required, and others may also be present).56 May benefit transit time, immune function, and lactose intolerance.22
Kefir	Made from fermented milk and either kefir starter cultures, kefir grains, a variety of lactic acid–producing bacteria, acetic acid bacteria–producing, and yeasts containing up to 20 billion CFU59	Well tolerated by those with lactose intolerance.56 Some evidence of benefit in cases of constipation and flatulence, complementing treatment for Helicobacter pylori infection.22 More evidence is needed on the impact on gastrointestinal disorders and microbiome of humans.
Miso	Traditional Japanese fermented soybean paste with bacteria	Limited high-quality human data. Cancer prevention evidence, but confounding factor is isoflavone content.22
Tempeh	Indonesian food made with boiled and dehulled soybeans with a fungal starter	Limited high-quality human data. One small open trial demonstrated increased stool bacteria diversity, suggesting microbiome change.22
Kimchi	Korean fermented cabbage (fermented either naturally or with a starter)	Limited high-quality human data. Some ongoing research on gut microbiota targeting cancer risk. Results suggest benefits to microbiota and inconclusive results for cancer risk.22
Kombucha	Fermented tea; originated in China using symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast	Limited high-quality human data despite wide popularity
Sauerkraut	Fermented cabbage	Some human trials showing modest improvement in irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) severity, but without demonstrating a significant change in the microbiome22
Natto	Traditional Japanese dish consisting of yellow soybeans fermented with Bacillus subtilis	Limited high-quality human data. A natto study with miso soup demonstrated increased stool frequency and increased beneficial stool bacteria and decreased pathogenic bacteria.22
Sourdough bread	Made with sourdough starter with many types of lactic acid and yeasts	Limited high-quality human data. Preliminary data suggest sourdough bread helped manage gastrointestinal symptoms in IBS compared with regular bread.22
Abbreviations: CFU = colony-forming unit

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Our diets contain a mixture of lipids with fatty acids (FAs) as their fundamental building blocks. The fate of FAs in the diet includes using them for energy production, storage in adipose tissue, or integration into other lipid species such as phospholipids, which form the major structural components of cellular membranes.⁵⁷

In this role at the membrane level, the different forms of essential FAs—omega-3 and omega-6—are precursors to eicosanoids, which can be used for inflammatory or anti-inflammatory pathways in the body, with omega-3 favoring anti-inflammatory pathways and omega-6 being associated with risk of blood clots, pain, and inflammation (Figure 7.6).⁵⁸ Omega-3 FAs act as precursors to less inflammatory versions of bioactive molecules such as eicosanoids, which positively influence health. For example, eicosanoids act as powerful hormones that control many other hormones and essential body functions, such as the immune system, central nervous system, cardiac cell health, and blood pressure regulation.⁵⁹

Culinary options for incorporating foods rich in omega-3 FAs—such as fatty fish (e.g., salmon, herring, sardines, mackerel, cod), flaxseeds, chia seeds, and walnuts—enhance taste and provide bioactive FAs for health and nutrition. Although omega-6 FAs are often consumed in higher quantities than optimal in the Standard American Diet, this doesn’t imply that they should be avoided; however, it may be advisable to reduce their intake.⁵⁷ In the US food supply, soybean oil intake has dramatically increased with concurrent evidence of decreased omega-3 FAs in human tissue.⁵⁷ Nevertheless, it is reasonable to emphasize healthy options for omega-3 essential and long-chain polyunsaturated FAs in culinary medicine interventions.

Terpenes

Terpenes are highly aromatic compounds that are involved in producing the signature odor of many plants and herbs, such as rosemary, lavender, and thyme. Some of the better-known terpenes in our food supply include limonene, which is a common terpene in the rinds of citrus fruits, giving them their pleasant citrusy fragrance. Another terpene, beta-caryophyllene, is found in many herbs and vegetables (e.g., cloves, black pepper) and has anti-inflammatory effects and possibilities for pain reduction.²³

Carotenoids

Carotenoids belong to the terpene family and are important and widely distributed pigments determining the various colors of plants. For example, dietary sources rich in beta-carotene are typically in the form of yellow, red, orange, and green leafy fruits and vegetables. A review of carotenoid food sources is found in Table 7.4.

Lycopene is a pigment molecule that imparts color to many fruits and vegetables, including tomatoes, which supply 85% of the lycopene in the American diet.^23–25 Carotenoids are lipophilic, meaning that they follow the same digestive processes as lipids, which are also essential for carotenoid absorption.

Several carotenoids, such as beta-carotene and beta-cryptoxanthin, are provitamin A carotenoids, plant pigments that are converted to vitamin A in the small intestine.²⁴ All dietary carotenoids, including non–vitamin A varieties such as lutein, lycopene, and zeaxanthin, are considered to play a role in the prevention of chronic diseases such as CVD, age-related macular degeneration, and cancer.²³ Carotenoids also have protective effects on cardiovascular health by preventing damage to blood vessel walls. In a study with 31 years of follow-up, carotenoid intake was inversely related to strokes and other causes of death.^2,23,24 The impact of culinary practices on bioavailability of carotenoids has been extensively researched.

Enhanced release of carotenoids is found with cooking and processing methods that break down the plant cell walls, making the carotenoids more accessible.²⁵ For example, heating and cooking vegetables such as spinach, carrots, and tomatoes can break down cell walls and release carotenoids. Blending, such as making smoothies or purees from fruits and vegetables, also can break down cell walls, making the carotenoids more readily available for absorption, and chopping, mincing, and cutting before cooking can help release fat-soluble cells to enhance absorption when they’re consumed with dietary fat.^23,26

Most carotenoids are heat stable; however, some (e.g., beta-carotene) are more sensitive to heat and can be degraded during cooking. Boiling vegetables can cause leaching of carotenoids into the cooking water, reducing bioavailability; using the cooking water in a soup or sauce can help you recover benefits from these nutrients.²³ Steaming is a gentler cooking method that can help preserve carotenoids. Processing techniques such as canning, freezing, and drying can affect carotenoid levels. The impact of these changes depends on the specific carotenoid, which processing methods are used, and the duration of storage.²³

 

Table 7.4. Carotenoid Food Sources²³

Carotenoid	Food sources
Beta-carotene	Carrots, sweet potatoes, squash, pumpkin, spinach, kale, mangoes, apricots, red bell peppers
Lutein	Spinach, kale, parsley, collard greens, Swiss chard, broccoli, peas, corn, eggs, raspberries, okra, basil
Lycopene	Tomatoes, watermelon, pink grapefruit, guava, papaya, red cabbage, asparagus, persimmon
Zeaxanthin	Corn, spinach, kale, collard greens, Swiss chard, beet greens, peas, eggs, oranges, pumpkin, brussels sprouts, pistachios
Cryptoxanthin	Butternut squash, red bell peppers, papaya, mangoes, oranges, tangerines, peaches, apricots, persimmon, nectarines, watermelon, paprika

It is believed that additional bioactive compounds have yet to be discovered. When considering culinary applications to promote health and well-being, incorporating foods with bioactive compounds can elevate the nutritional value and health impact of the meal beyond its basic nutrient composition.

References

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