A. Metaphor

Anuj Gupta and Jonathon Reinhardt

⇒ A.1 Introduction to Metaphors

⇒ A.2 What is a metaphor, grammatically speaking?

⇒ A.3 Metaphors as a way to think

⇒ A.4 Types of metaphors and their origins

⇒ A.5 Metaphors in advertising and politics

⇒ A.6 Module discussion/reflection activity

⇒ A.7 Key points

⇒ A.8 Key concepts

Watch the video introducing this module ⇒ The Power of Metaphor

A.1 Introduction to metaphors

Module preview questions

When you hear the word “metaphor” what comes to your mind? What examples can you think of? What is the difference between ‘metaphorical’ and ‘literal’? What is ‘metaphorical thinking’?

A metaphor is a rhetorical device that enables us to connect two disparate words, concepts or things together such that some sort of transference of qualities or activity takes place from one to the other. The most basic forms of metaphor equate an abstract idea with something more concrete, so that the abstract idea can be conceptualized more easily. For example:

Life is a beach

Love is a battlefield

Laughter is the best medicine

The literal meaning of ‘life is a beach’ is that a life actually is a beach, which is a physical impossibility, so if someone uses the metaphor they intend to compare ‘life’ with the associations and connotations of the word beach, for example, that it is relaxing and enjoyable. A literal interpretation of language means that only the denotation of the word – its exact definition – are understood. Literal uses are normally contrasted with figurative uses, which tend towards connotations, associations, and metaphors. Fictional characters like Drax the Destroyer from Guardians of the Galaxy, or Data from Star Trek are portrayed as having difficulty understanding figurative uses and take everything literally, presumably because they are not human. Using and understanding metaphors, figurative uses, and connotative meanings is deeply human, which means that we wouldn’t expect aliens or animals to do it.

 

Photo by Stefan Cosma is from Unsplash

One of the most famous metaphors in the world that you might have heard is “All the world’s a stage” which was created by Shakespeare in his famous comedy “As You Like It” (1998). In this metaphor, Shakespeare connects two different things together: ‘the world’ and ‘a stage’. He does not imply that the world is literally a stage where actual theatrical performances take place. Rather he implies that some qualities of the stage, like people acting or performing for an audience, can be transferred as a frame or a lens to help us better understand the world. Going through life and all its motions – birth, marriage, parenthood, heartbreak and death etc. are akin to different performances that we give for other humans, our audiences. Thus they have an unreal, or transitory quality to them and shouldn’t, perhaps, be taken too seriously. Through this transference of “stage” onto the “world”, Shakespeare enables us to see the world and our place in it in a new light.

 

a black and white picture of the Globe Theater in London where Shakespeare's plays were performed
The Globe Theatre in London, Shakespeare’s original stage; photo by Hulki Okan Tabak is on Unsplash

Another common example equates humans with animals, for example “he is a pig” and “she is a fox”; in both examples, the common meaning of the terms pig and fox are modified in the act of predication (the act of linking the terms to the subjects he and she). When the metaphor “he is a pig” is used to describe one’s roommate, this does not imply that the roommate has four legs, a curly tail, and a snout nose; instead, it means that the roommate exhibits certain behaviors that can be associated with the animal labeled with the term pig. (Jasinski 2001, p.257).

Key points from A.1

  • A metaphor is a rhetorical device that enables us to connect two disparate words, concepts or things together such that some sort of transference of qualities or activity takes place from one to the other. The most basic forms of metaphor equate a newer, more abstract idea with something more familiar and concrete, so that the abstract idea can be conceptualized more easily.

Activity A.1: Metaphor Basics

A.

B. Animals are considered symbolic in nearly every culture on the planet. In some cultures, if you see a particular animal at some moment, it has a meaningful connection to something that is troubling you. Read about animal symbolism here: https://skullbliss.com/blogs/news/animal-symbolism

What human qualities are ascribed to animals? Think of 5 adjectives that are invariably associated with 5 different animals and used metaphorically to describe humans.

 

A.2 What are metaphors, grammatically speaking?

Metaphors can be expressed in many different ways, but perhaps the most prototypical form is:

NOUN – linking verb – NOUN

where the first noun is the subject and the noun following the linking verb is called the subject complement. In use, the subject noun is the known concept, and the complement is the new concept. The linking verb bridges the two concepts, and can be thought of as an equal sign.

  • That puppy is a little piglet, he eats so much. (puppy = piglet)
  • I am an open book. (I = book)
  • The school has become a prison. (school = prison)

A linking verb is a verb like ‘is’ (a form of BE), ‘appears’, ‘becomes’, ‘sounds (like)’, or ‘looks (like)’. It contrasts with a transitive verb because the word that follows the linking verb describes the subject, rather than functioning as the object, that is, the thing that receives the action of the verb. In ‘I read a book’ or ‘The school replaced a prison’, ‘book’ and ‘prison’ are objects, not subject complements, because the verbs ‘read’ and ‘replace’ are transitive.

Other parts of speech like adjectives can be used in metaphors as well, for example as attributive adjective

ADJ – NOUN

before a noun or with comparative phrases like

as – ADJ – as or ADJ–er than a NOUN

for example:

  • The US is thought of as a melting pot. (US = melting pot)
  • She’s as brave as a lion. (She = brave lion)
  • The walk-in freezer is colder than a Chicago January. (freezer cold > Chicago January cold)

Metaphors do not need to be expressed with subject complements, however, it is simply a prototypical form. Verbs can be used in metaphors too, along with other parts of speech, in many different ways, e.g.:

  • We were drowning in debt. 
  • I ran out of time…

Key points from A.2

  • Metaphors can be expressed in many different ways, but perhaps the most basic form is: NOUN – linking verb – NOUN, where the first noun is the subject and the noun following the linking verb is called the subject complement.
  • Other parts of speech like adjectives can be used in metaphors as well, for example as attributive adjectives (‘ADJ – NOUN’)  before a noun or with comparative phrases like ‘as – ADJ – as’ or ‘ADJ-er than a’.
  • Verbs can be used in metaphors too, along with other parts of speech, in different ways.

Activity A.2: Grammar of metaphors

A.

B.

A.3: Metaphors as a way to think

Because of the way most of us are introduced to metaphors in school, we may think that they are simply garnishes or superficial beautification devices that help make our writing pretty. This is called the ornamental view of metaphors. Think of how many times in your own English classes that your teachers asked you to identify metaphors that a poet uses and reflect on why they have used them. Literary analysts can look at something an author has written and interpret it to mean something that the author may not have even realized or intended; writing and stories can reflect deeper truths about an author, the topics of their stories, and their historical contexts. We may therefore think that only literature students and creative writers need to pay attention to metaphors. In truth, however, metaphors are fundamental to how we think, communicate, teach, and relate to one another.

A.3.1 Conceptual Metaphor Theory

A lot of contemporary psychologists and neuroscientists argue that metaphors are not just ornamental devices but actually central to the very way in which our brains process information. One theory on this notion is conceptual metaphor theory, pioneered by cognitive linguists George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (2003).

If you have time and interest, watch this video to learn more: Metaphors we live by Lakoff and Johnson

Lakoff and Johnson assert that “human thought processes are largely metaphorical. … The human conceptual system is metaphorically structured and defined” (Lakoff and Johnson 2003:6). Essentially what they mean is that metaphors relate two objects or concepts that may not be naturally associated. By doing this, they condition us to perceive and experience one thing in terms of another. As Jasinski (2001) puts it, “The force (of a) metaphor arises from its ability to help us Iook at something in a new way” (242).  One of the most famous examples discussed by Lakoff and Johnson, which you saw in the video, is ARGUMENT IS WAR (note that the theory states metaphors using capital letters). When we use language, the many connotations and associations of this metaphor serve to invoke it and reinforce it as a way of conceptualizing the domains.

Conceptual Domain A (ARGUMENT) → Conceptual Domain B (WAR) 

  • Your claims are indefensible.
  • He attacked every weak point in my argument.
  • His criticisms were right on target. I demolished his argument.
  • I’ve never won an argument with him.
  • You disagree? Okay, shoot!
  • If you use that strategy, he’ll wipe you out.
  • He shot down all of my arguments.

(Lakoff and Johnson, 2003, p.5)

In the above example, the overarching conceptual metaphor that connects these two concepts (ARGUMENT, WAR) enables the transference of a wide range of adjectives (indefensible, weak point), verbs (attacked, demolished, won, shoot, wipe you out), as well as other nouns (target), from conceptual domain B (WAR) to another domain A (ARGUMENT). This makes us perceive domain A (ARGUMENT) in terms of domain B (WAR) and we start to believe that argument actually is war. Think about it. It’s not objective or natural to think that arguments necessarily need to be combative and aggressive, but many cultures today unfortunately conceptualize them as such because of this underlying metaphor that has conditioned all of us.

What if we lived in a culture that thought of arguments as not war but something else? Lakoff and Johnson (2003) challenge us to:

“​​Imagine a culture where an argument is viewed as a dance, the participants are seen as performers, and the goal is to perform in a balanced and aesthetically pleasing way. In such a culture, people would view arguments differently, experience them differently, carry them out differently, and talk about them differently. But we would probably not view them as arguing at all: they would simply be doing something different. It would seem strange even to call what they were doing “arguing.” Perhaps the most neutral way of describing this difference between their culture and ours would be to say that we had a discourse form structured in terms of battle and they had one structured in terms of dance” (p.5).

Metaphors even affect our thinking at a deep neurological level. In a study by Lacey et al. (2012), neuroscientists found the use of metaphors activates brain areas that are different from when the same meaning is conveyed in a non-metaphorical way. When participants were presented with two sentences “he had a rough day” versus “he had a bad day”, the first sentence, which has a physical, textural metaphor of “roughness”, activated the part of their brains which is associated with texture! The second sentence which does not carry any physical or textural metaphors did not cause any such activations. Through this they concluded that using metaphorical language can actually impact people at the neurological level.

 

Two white figurines dancing with each other against a blue background
Photo by Nareeta Martin is on Unsplash

Key points from A.3

  • Contemporary psychologists and neuroscientists argue that metaphors are not just ornamental devices but actually central to the very way in which our brains process information.
  • In conceptual metaphor theory, metaphors relate two objects or concepts that may not be naturally associated. By doing this, they condition us to perceive and experience one thing in terms of another.

Activity A.3 Dancing arguments and valuable time

A.

B. Imagine that we conceptualized argument as dance and said things like: 

  • His words synchronized perfectly with his partner.
  • Their argument dazzled everyone and filled the audience with joy.
  • The rhythm of their argument brought everyone together.

What are some other things people might say having to do with arguments if it were conceptualized as dance?

C. Think about the conceptual metaphor TIME IS MONEY, expressed in sentences like “You are wasting my time” and “I don’t have enough time to spare”.

  1. What other things do people say that reflect this metaphor?
  2. How do you think TIME IS MONEY shapes people’s perceptions and behavior?

What might be some different metaphors for time or money that would change our understanding of them?

D. Think of another metaphor you see around you. It could be on social media or in the newspaper, or just in the ways in which people speak around you. Think about how it shapes your perception or behavior. What is it? How is it expressed in language use and people’s behavior?

A.4: Types of metaphors and their origins

As must be clear to you by now, metaphors are created by joining two words that don’t really go along with each other in conventional language. Think of “rose” and “love”. There is no natural, intuitive connection between a botanical entity – a flower called Rose or Rosa Polyantha and a human emotion and social phenomenon – love. However, through repeated use of the metaphor ROSES ARE LOVE in literature, art, and language use we have come to consider them as deeply connected. We can classify such connections based on different parameters – size, depth, and originality.

 

A bunch of red roses
Photo by Sidney Pearce is on Unsplash

A metaphor can be used at a very small scale, where it is applied only in the immediate context of use. Think of a sentence like “The protagonist felt blue”, reflecting the metaphor SADNESS IS BLUE. The impact of this metaphor would be restricted just to a fleeting event in a larger narrative, and metaphorical meaning is encapsulated in just the word ‘blue’ (although it may reflect a deeper metaphor that EMOTIONS ARE COLORS, which the 2015 film ‘Inside Out’ played on). However, metaphors can also be used at a very large scale and impact a whole culture’s understanding of a phenomenon. Think of the phrase ‘holy war’, which has been used by various religious warmongers across the world (Christian crusades, Islamic jihad etc.) to justify their violent acts as acceptable. This may originate in logical entailments of metaphors like GOD IS ONE and GOD IS HOLY, that other gods must therefore be profane and their worshippers should be destroyed.  Some large scale, deep metaphors have become so ingrained into our cultures that we can barely perceive them as metaphors at all. For example, “This is a hard concept to grasp” reflects the metaphor that IDEAS ARE SUBSTANCES; we often compare intellectual concepts to physical texture and think of them as “hard” or “soft”. This has been used so extensively over the ages that it becomes difficult for us to realize that it is in fact a metaphor and that at some point long ago it may not have been seen as ‘natural’ at all.

Some metaphors are very explicit about the two words or things they connect and can be spotted on the surface of a sentence, for example, in “America won the space race with the Soviet Union”. Here it is clear that the word ‘space’ is being metaphorically connected to the word ‘race’ and both are present in the sentence itself. However, in some cases the metaphors are deep, hidden under the surface of a sentence and not obvious. Often this happens subconsciously. In the famous Biblical phrase: “The Lord is my shepherd”, it seems that “Lord” is being metaphorically connected to the word “shepherd”, but there is also a more hidden or implied metaphor that the person represented by the word “my”, which is a stand-in for all humans, is a sheep. Thus, more explicitly the metaphor is HUMANS ARE SHEEP, and so they are innocent, vulnerable, and child-like, and thus need protection.

As another example, the metaphor hidden under “my partner and I decided to go our separate ways” is difficult to tease out. If we consider the figurative meaning we recognize that what is being spoken about is a breakup, and that a breakup is like going two separate ways. This surface metaphor is enabled by two deeper metaphors that LIFE IS A JOURNEY and LOVE IS A JOURNEY. Another surface form reflecting these same underlying metaphors might be “I can’t wait to go down this path with you”; however, we’d have to be careful to whom and how we say it, since it can be interpreted as reflecting either or both metaphors at the same time. When using a metaphor to tell a story or make an argument, mixing them can be confusing because of conflicting associations. The metaphor love is a journey implies that it has an ending, which conflicts with the metaphor LOVE IS ENDLESS.

Metaphors originate from people trying to explain new things and experiences that their audiences may not understand if they were explained in literal terms; some metaphors are very original while others are conventional. Much of the language we use–some linguists say all—has metaphorical origins. The computer mouse, for example, was named a ‘mouse’ because it looked like one, but now many have evolved to look nothing like mice, and a ‘mousepad’ or ‘to mouse over’ would be difficult to comprehend for someone who knew what mice were but not computers. Artists, writers, and thinkers continually generate new metaphors, drawing two or more seemingly unrelated ideas together and challenging us to imagine new ways of seeing and being in the world by connecting them. Perhaps this is why British poet P.B. Shelley said that “poets are the unacknowledged legislators of the world,” because they continuously replenish language with new metaphors, and metaphorically speaking, maybe METAPHORS ARE LAWS that guide our thoughts.

A "mind-blown" emoji made up of a startled smiley face that is having an explosion of ideas in their brain
The emoji for ‘mind blown’ reflects the metaphor that THOUGHTS ARE VOLATILE SUBSTANCES, which can explode if mixed unexpectedly with a new thought (Image source: Wikimedia commons)

Key points from A.4

  • Metaphors can be of many types and can be classified based on different parameters – scale, depth, and originality.
  • In terms of scale, a metaphor can be used either at a very small scale, where it is applied only in the immediate context of use or it can be used at a very large scale, where it can impact a whole culture’s understanding of a phenomenon.
  • In terms of depth, a metaphor can be explicitly visible at the surface of the words used to express it or it can be hidden beneath many layers of implied meaning.
  • In terms of originality, a metaphor can be conventional, i.e. something that is very common in a language or culture, or it can be innovative, i.e. something that has rarely been used by anyone.

Activity A.4 Said another way

A.

B.

C. How are common colors, seasons/weather, animals, and emotions used metaphorically? Find a song lyric, a poem, or a work of art that reflects a metaphor.

A.5: Metaphors in advertising and politics

Many metaphors are so deeply ingrained in our cultures and ways of thinking that it is difficult to know when one is simply being used because it is widely understood, or if it is being used for propaganda purposes, that is, with the ulterior motive of influencing opinions, behaviors, or worldviews. The fields of advertising and marketing are well-known for their use of certain ‘subliminal’ or ‘subconscious’ techniques to influence consumers’ buying habits; since the end of the 19th century, their basic modus operandi has been to create and reinforce metaphors associating their product with basic desires and insecurities towards beauty, cleanliness, safety, health, and success. Watch Edward Bernays’ Torches of Freedom to learn how cigarettes were marketed successfully to women in the early 20th century by associating them with power:

 

How cigarettes became a symbol of power in films, a video essay by Sana Saeed for her series Pop Americana published in AJ+ on Youtube https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YDS11IZP4PE

If you have the time and interest, read how the flavor of mint was associated with freshness – an association that is in no way natural.

Jasinski (2001) gives a really hard-hitting (notice how this is a metaphor too!) example of how metaphors have been used to create propaganda in the real world, propaganda being understood as biased information that promotes a particular perspective. In 1999, Ron Hampton, the executive director of the National Black Police Association asked the US American public to reflect on how certain political sloganeering may be impacting the high rate of police brutality in the US:

“This militarization of police work started a long time ago. It began with the use of terms like “war on crime” and “war on drugs.” … When police officers are inundated with this kind of military training and language, they go out thinking they’re soldiers, that they are the Iine between civilization and anarchy. Pretty soon, you’re bringing your war to traffic stops and minor arrests” (qtd. In Jasinski 2001, p. 259).

While police brutality is of course a complicated issue with many reasons, could the language use that surrounds police culture be contributing to it? What would happen if fighting crime, illegal drug trade, and drug use were conceptualized using other metaphors than ‘war’?

 

A black and white image of an american police force that is armed and dressed almost like it was a military
Photo by Chris Henry is on Unsplash

In a study by Stanford psychologists Lera Boroditsky and Paul Thibodeau, several participants were given paragraphs describing the rising crime rates in a fictional city. While some of the participants were given paragraphs that used the metaphor of CRIME IS A BEAST that preys on the community, others were given paragraphs that described CRIME IS A VIRUS that plagues the community. Then participants were asked which of two ways of dealing with crime they would support for this city: greater policing and cracking down on criminals, or greater social reform. How do you think the choice of metaphors might have impacted the participants’ decisions? (Boroditsky & Thibodeau qtd. in Gorlick, 2011)

If you have the time and interest, read the details of this study to find out what actually happened:

Metaphors are especially powerful when they generate implications that are coherent with a particular ideology, that is, a system of ideas and ideals about the world. When taken together, these systems of metaphors can be triggered by cognitive framing, the use of a familiar perspective or narrative to make sense of and evaluate new information. Politicians and their media arms are often very good at ‘spinning’ their words and actions into messaging coherent with their ideology through the use of cognitive framing that evoke metaphors. For example, in September 2022 in the US, conservative Florida Governor Ron Desantis had Venezuelan refugees flown to a New England island known for its vacation homes of his liberal political opponents. His actions are coherent with the metaphor IMMIGRATION IS A FLOOD, where immigrants and refugees are unwanted, threatening, and overwhelming. However, liberals in cities like Boston and New York historically populated by immigrants may understand that IMMIGRANTS ARE ORPHANED CHILDREN, reflected in Emma Lazarus’ famous poem about the Statue of Liberty, and they responded by helping the refugees. These sorts of actions (or ‘political stunts’ some might say) evoke competing metaphors and confirm the beliefs and biases of those who share the same ideologies and cognitive frames. Interestingly, the metaphors evoked by Desantis and the New Englanders fit very well with linguist George Lakoff’s cognitive framing theory about US politics, which he sums in his book ‘Don’t Think of an Elephant’. He argues that if a deep metaphor for the USA is THE NATION IS A FAMILY, then Republicans tend to see GOVERNMENT IS A STRICT FATHER, while Democrats see GOVERNMENT IS A NURTURING CARETAKER. Note that this means the Republican frame portrays Democrats as permissive mothers, while the Democrat frame presents Republicans as uncaring, negligent, and absent. Do these frames resonate with your understanding of how the two US political parties portray one another?

If you have time and interest, read more about Lakoff’s theory here:

Key points from A.5

  • Domains like advertising and politics often use hidden metaphors with an ulterior motive of influencing opinions, behaviors, or worldviews.
  • Metaphors are especially powerful when they generate implications that are coherent with a particular ideology. When taken together, these systems of metaphors can be triggered by cognitive framing, the use of a familiar perspective or narrative to make sense of and evaluate new information. Politicians and their media arms are often very good at ‘spinning’ their words and actions into messaging coherent with their ideology through the use of cognitive framing.

Activity A.5 Metaphors in advertising and politics

A.

B. Think of an advertising slogan or campaign for a product that attempts to associate it with a word or an idea that is not necessarily natural (e.g. ‘You’re in good hands with Allstate’); sometimes it is even reflected in the name of the product (e.g. Dodge Ram trucks). What is the metaphor (or metaphors) behind it? (in the example cases it would be insurance = safety, or trucks = aggression)

C. What is a current social issue you feel strongly about, and how is it conceptualized by news media and politicians metaphorically? For example, is college education a privilege or a necessity? Is it a requirement to be checked off, or an enlightening journey to be taken? What do you hear about college that supports these metaphors?

If you have time and interest, here are some additional readings that might interest you:

  1. Erard’s “How to build a metaphor to change someone’s mind” (2015)
  2. Cobb’s “Why your brain is not a computer” (2020)

A.6 Module discussion/reflection activity

Reflect on the content of this module by answering some or all of the following questions. Provide examples to support your points.

  1. What is a metaphor and what are some examples? Who uses them and when?
  2. How do metaphors shape how we think? 
  3. What grammatical devices go into making metaphors?
  4. What are some metaphors that advertisers want you to associate with particular products? 
  5. Can you think of a politician who has used metaphors to make the public think a certain way? What specifically have they said? Why?

⇒ Try this module’s corpus activity: Exploring Metaphors in US immigration discourse

A.7 Key Points on Metaphor

A.1 What is a metaphor

  • A metaphor is a rhetorical device that enables us to connect two disparate words, concepts or things together such that some sort of transference of qualities or activity takes place from one to the other. The most basic forms of metaphor equate a newer, more abstract idea with something more familiar and concrete, so that the abstract idea can be conceptualized more easily.

A.2 What is a metaphor, grammatically speaking? 

  • Metaphors can be expressed in many different ways, but perhaps the most basic form is: NOUN – linking verb – NOUN, where the first noun is the subject and the noun following the linking verb is called the subject complement.
  • Other parts of speech like adjectives can be used in metaphors as well, for example as attributive adjectives (‘ADJ – NOUN’)  before a noun or with comparative phrases like ‘as – ADJ – as’ or ‘ADJ-er than a’.
  • Verbs can be used in metaphors too, along with other parts of speech, in different ways.

A.3 Metaphor as a way to think 

  • Contemporary psychologists and neuroscientists argue that metaphors are not just ornamental devices but actually central to the very way in which our brains process information.
  • In conceptual metaphor theory, metaphors relate two objects or concepts that may not be naturally associated. By doing this, they condition us to perceive and experience one thing in terms of another.

A.4 Types of metaphors and their origins

  • Metaphors can be of many types and can be classified based on different parameters – size, depth, and originality.
  • In terms of scale, a metaphor can be used either at a very small scale, where it is applied only in the immediate context of use or it can be used at a very large scale, where it can impact a whole culture’s understanding of a phenomenon.
  • In terms of depth, a metaphor can be explicitly visible at the surface of the words used to express it or it can be hidden beneath many layers of implied meaning.
  • In terms of originality, a metaphor can be conventional, i.e. something that is very common in a language or culture, or it can be innovative, i.e. something that has rarely been used by anyone.

A.5 Metaphors in advertising and politics 

  • Domains like advertising and politics often use hidden metaphors with an ulterior motive of influencing opinions, behaviors, or worldviews.
  • Metaphors are especially powerful when they generate implications that are coherent with a particular ideology. When taken together, these systems of metaphors can be triggered by cognitive framing, the use of a familiar perspective or narrative to make sense of and evaluate new information. Politicians and their media arms are often very good at ‘spinning’ their words and actions into messaging coherent with their ideology through the use of cognitive framing.

A.8 Key Concepts on Metaphors

Crossword Puzzle

Test your vocabulary knowledge

⇒ bibliography for A. Metaphor

Module authors: Anuj Gupta & Jonathon Reinhardt

Last updated: 21 November 2023

This module is part of Modern English Grammar and the Power of Language, a open educational resource offered by the Clarify Initiative customized for English 406, a course at the University of Arizona. The Clarify Initiative is a privately funded project with the goal of raising critical language awareness and media literacy among students of language and throughout society.

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Modern English Grammar and the Power of Language Copyright © 2023 by Jonathon Reinhardt, Anuj Gupta, Robert Poole, Dilara Avci is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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