Dances from Germanic Europe

Andrew Carnie

Part 3: Dances of Central and Northern Europe

9 Dances from Germanic Europe

1. The Germanic Countries

The Germanic countries all have majority speakers of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family, spread throughout Northern Europe. In classical times, these people were a mix of small-scale agrarian farmers and hunter-gatherers, but in either case, they were known to the Romans for their fierceness. In the 4th to 6th centuries CE, the Germanic peoples began their migratory period. The Huns sacked Rome. Spain was conquered by the Goths and the Visigoths. Gaul (France) was invaded by the Franks, and Britain was occupied by the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. This was the time when Norse (i.e., Viking) cultures began to emerge in Scandinavia. The modern Germanic languages include German, Dutch, English, Frisian, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Scots, Afrikaans, Yiddish, Faroese, and Luxembourgish.

Leaving aside Britain, the modern Germanic countries can be classed into three groups:

The Norse Scandinavians who live in Iceland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark: The Norse countries also include some non-Germanic peoples and countries: Finland has some Swedish speakers, but the bulk of its population speaks Finnish, a Finno-Ugric language related to Hungarian; we also find indigenous communities in the far north, such as the reindeer-herding Saami. We will include Finland in our discussion here because its music and dance are like those of the rest of Scandinavia, even though the Finns are not Germanic.
The Low Germans (the Dutch and the Flemish) who live in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg.
The Central/Eastern Germans who live in Germany, Austria, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland.

2. Scandinavia

Scandinavia consists of Iceland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.^[1] The classic stereotype of Scandinavia is that of the Vikings, who indeed had an oversized influence on Europe. They conquered and attacked Britain, Ireland, and France. They conquered Paris, and it is thought they reached as far as North Africa and the Levant. Archeological evidence also places the Vikings as far afield as Greenland and North America. After the Vikings, a series of important empires emerged from Scandinavia: the Kalmar Union, the Kingdom of Norway, and the Kingdom of Sweden held sway not only over Scandinavia but also in other regions, such as northern Britain. At one point, Sweden had the most powerful navy in the world.

Figure 9.1: Map of Scandinavia (except Iceland) and Finland

2.1. Costumes

Norse costumes are often made with wool cloth and dyed in dark colors, usually black, blue, or red. Women’s skirts are often ankle-length and, in some regions, include an apron that is sewn onto the skirt. Peaked caps and hats are common and reflect the region’s traditions of gnomes and elves.

Norwegian costumes. Woman in a long black skirt. Man in a black vest and black pants, both embellished with red embroidery. — Figure 9.2: Norwegian Folk Costumes

2.2. Music

The music of the Norse countries is largely centered around string instruments. They have their own version of the fiddle, known as the hardanger fiddle (named for the Hardanger region of Norway), which has more strings than a traditional fiddle. One layer of strings lies underneath the main strings and vibrates “sympathetically” with the main strings, giving a distinctive sound to the instrument. Hardanger fiddles often have elaborately decorated fingerboards. One of the strangest instruments found in Scandinavia is the nyckelharpa. This instrument has keys that change the notes like a piano, but it is bowed like a fiddle. In Norway, you sometimes hear the jaw harp. Very often, Scandinavian dancing is performed with the dancers singing a cappella. There are also a variety of other instruments, including bagpipes and strummed lyres called kantele.

Sackpipa (bagpipe) from Sweden — Figure 9.8: Sackpipa, Sweden

2.3. Dance

There are four main styles of Scandinavian dance, two of which are probably ancient and two more recent.

The Halling is a spectacular style of solo male dancing in which the man struts around performing acrobatic feats that put break-dancers to shame. The Halling comes to a dramatic climax when a woman standing on a chair holds the man’s hat high up on a stick, and the man must leap up in the air to kick it off. One can imagine Viking warriors showing off for one another and their partners with this dance.

The other old-style dances are line dances. Although Scandinavia is now mostly Protestant, like most of Western Europe, the area was historically Catholic, so its line dances circulate clockwise rather than counterclockwise. These dances are almost always done to the dancers’ singing rather than to a band. Two such old-style line dances are the Langdans from Sweden and the Vikivaki from Iceland.

Of the more recent dance styles, couple dances are by far the most common kind of Scandinavian dance. They do several types of couple dances, including the Schottis, Hambo, Pols, Vals, and Polska. In Hambos and Pols, the leader and follower take the same steps, but they do so slightly out of sync with each other. For example, in the Hambo, the leader and follower do precisely the same footwork, offset by one beat.

We should note that Scandinavia has experienced a revival of interest in traditional folk dancing, just like most other European countries. For example, in Sweden, from the late 19th century through the 20th century, many traditional dances were collected and notated in a sort of bible of dances, Beskrivning av Svenska, popularly known in English as the Green Book. Researchers also traveled throughout the country seeking older dancers who remembered old dances that had disappeared. Today, the old dances have become the basic vocabulary for newly created dances performed to modern melodies and arrangements. Scandinavian folk dance is still a living tradition.

The other kind of relatively recent dance style is the Engelska, a family of set and square dances. Based on the name, it’s thought that they might have been brought to Scandinavia by English sailors. This is supported by the fact that they are often performed to music associated with the English Navy, such as hornpipes (Hornfiffen). But even if that is not the case, they certainly are meant to be done in the style of English Country dances.

3. The Low Countries

Figure 9.9: Map of the non-Scandinavian Germanic countries, with the Low Countries on the Atlantic and the Central Germanic countries in the middle

The name of the Netherlands literally means “low country” because much of the country is below sea level. In English, it is often known as Holland, but Holland refers to a province within the country. Although subject to the occasional devastating floods and now threatened by rising sea levels, the fertile plains of the Netherlands are kept dry because of a combination of dikes and windmills, which pump water back into the sea. At different times, the Netherlands was both a colonial power and a colony. For a while, they were ruled by Spain, but then later the Dutch ruled Indonesia and had colonies and “possessions” on every continent. Their rule over Indonesia was often considered brutal. Today, the Dutch are known for their flower markets and chocolate, their liberal policies on drugs and sex, and for their largely tolerant approach to multiculturalism.

Belgium is also a country with a checkered colonial history. The people of the Congo were mistreated mercilessly under King Leopold II in the 19th century. But like its northern neighbor, Belgium is now considered a haven for progressive views. Brussels, the largest city, is home to the European Parliament. Belgium is a tricultural country. It has three official languages: Flemish, a language closely related to Dutch and spoken by people who live in Flanders and the west; French, spoken by people in the south; and German, spoken by a tiny minority along the border with Germany.

Luxembourg is a small nation between Belgium, Germany, and France. In addition to French and German, they speak a distinct dialect called Luxembourgish, which is related to Flemish and German and is influenced by French. Because of its geographic position, Luxembourg was declared an independent and neutral country in 1867 by the Treaty of London.

3.1. Traditional Dress

The most noticeable feature of the costumes of the Low Countries is the footwear. Wooden clogs were crucial to getting around in the wet, marshy reclaimed land. And these clogs figure prominently in the dances and culture of these countries. Men often wear black straight pants and black shirts with kerchiefs around their necks. Black tams are worn on the head. Women wear calf-length skirts, aprons, and lace hats with distinctive starched rolls.

3.2. Music and Dance of the Low Countries

The musical instruments of the Dutch and Belgians are very similar to those of their German and French neighbors. Fiddles and accordions are the primary instruments, although you’ll also find the saxophone, oboe, and clarinet played by bands.

Most traditional dances are a mix of couple dances and mixers. Interestingly, in the past 40 years, perhaps because of the high regard for internationalism in these countries, international folk dancing has become quite popular.

Klompendans (clog dancing) is the most unusual dance style of the Dutch. Unlike clog and step dance traditions of Britain and America, which rely on tight rhythmic movements, the clog dances of the Dutch are much simpler. They must do simpler steps because the wooden clogs are more challenging to dance in. Dutch dances tend to be simple figure and set dances, where the dancers “clomp” their way through.

4. The Central Germanic Cultures

Germany, Switzerland, Austria, and their tiny neighbor Liechtenstein are the major countries of Central Europe. Germany, Liechtenstein, and Austria are mostly German-speaking; Switzerland also has a large German-speaking population, but French, Italian, and Romansch are also official languages. Austria, Liechtenstein, and Switzerland sit among the Alps. The geography of Germany is more varied, with mountainous forests in Bavaria and plains in the north.

Austria was one of the two centers of the Habsburgian Austro-Hungarian Empire and a world power for many decades. The Ottoman Turks attempted an invasion in 1683 and failed, so Austria demarcated the boundary between eastern and western Europe. The assassination of Austria’s Archduke Franz Ferdinand was the catalyst for World War I. During the period of the lead-up to World War II, Austria was one of the first countries annexed by the Nazis into the Third Reich. Since the war, Austria has been a parliamentary democracy.

Germany didn’t really exist as a unified country until 1871, when Otto von Bismarck united a patchwork quilt of small principalities, duchies, and city-states into the German Empire, ruled by a king called the Kaiser. During the First World War, Germany, under the Kaiser, fought brutal battles against the Western European powers. When they lost, the country suffered reparations and economic sanctions, which made Germany a hotbed of radicalized politics across the political spectrum. The country adopted the fascist ideology from the Italians, and Hitler’s dictatorship led to the Nazi genocide and the Second World War. After the war, the country was divided into two halves. West Germany fell under the influence of the Western Allies; East Germany became a communist satellite state under Soviet Influence. The late 1980s and early 1990s saw the fall of the Berlin Wall and the reunification of Germany. Modern Germany is not only one of the world’s largest economies; it is also widely regarded as a world leader in politics.

It’s easy to forget about little Liechtenstein tucked in between Switzerland and Austria, largely because it is culturally and economically dominated by its bigger neighbors. But it is a politically independent country.

Even though the Swiss are a linguistically diverse people (having four national languages), they have formed a tight political union since the late medieval period. They have consistently practiced official neutrality in wars, and, because of their alpine geography, they’ve been largely successful in staying out of conflicts and being invaded. They have a unique form of direct democracy, in which laws must be passed by direct popular vote. At the same time, it is a deeply conservative country. Women only achieved the right to vote in 1971. When people think of Switzerland, they often think of Swiss Army knives, chocolate, fondue, and skiing.

4.1. Traditional Dress

The folk costumes from this part of Europe are very distinctive. The women wear dirndls, which are full, knee-length skirts with very low-cut bodices. Women wear a white, poofy-sleeved blouse under the dirndl. It’s thought that the dirndl is a direct adaptation of the fashion of late 18th-century working women, which was then adopted as a national style. Men wear lederhosen. These are particularly distinctive for two reasons. First, they are often shorts (although Austrian lederhosen can be knee-length or even ankle-length), and they are made of leather. They are usually held up by leather suspenders, but decorated cloth suspenders have become common as well. The male dancers wear knee-high socks, which are typically green or white. On their heads, the men wear a Tyrolean hat decorated with a band, feathers, and, these days, enameled metal pins indicating where the wearer has traveled.

Bavarian Style costumes — Figure 9.11: Bavarian-style (German) costumes

4.2. Music and Dance

The most common instrument in German dance music is the accordion. But you also find a strong tradition of brass instrumentation, often known somewhat derogatorily as “oompah music”. This term mimics the sound of German polka music.

There are several styles of central Germanic dances. All the regions make use of set and square dances borrowed from the French court dances. They also all have strong traditions of couple dances. The modern waltz comes directly from the ballrooms of Vienna. One fascinating couple dance is the Zweifacher, which uses complex musical patterns in both 2/4 and 3/4. When you do a Zweifacher, you pivot (turning walks) on the bars that are in 2/4 and waltz on the bars in 3/4. The video linked below shows one of the more complicated Zweifachers, called Schneider Schneider. The MIT Folk Dance Club has a T-shirt with the formula (((P₂W)₂W)₂(P₂WP₃W₂)₂ printed on it. The purpose of the shirt is to help your partner remember the sequence by reading it on your shirt. A subscript number tells you how many of the Waltzes (W) or Pivot steps (P) you do. So, Schneider is Pivot Pivot Waltz, Pivot Pivot Waltz Waltz, Pivot Pivot Waltz, Pivot Pivot Waltz Waltz, Pivot Pivot Waltz Pivot Pivot Pivot, Waltz Waltz, Pivot Pivot Waltz Waltz, Pivot Pivot Waltz Pivot Pivot Pivot, Waltz Waltz. That is an amazing sequence!

Another distinctive style of dance includes couple dances, where the dancers perform tight twists and turns without dropping their hands, thereby tying themselves into knots and then untwisting. The most famous of these dances is the Austrian Laendler, which was featured in the movie The Sound of Music. However, many other such dances exist.

Another dance style many people are familiar with from popular culture is the Plattl. These are the clapping and slapping dances. One of the most famous examples in popular culture is in the movie European Vacation, where Chevy Chase gets beaten up by a troupe of Plattl dancers. These dances are often performance dances that use props and tell stories through pantomime. Some dances also combine arm twists and plattls.

Some Suggested Dances for Teaching

The following links take you to descriptions and instructions from my website, Folk Dance Musings, for dances appropriate for teaching to new dancers.

Scandinavian Dances

Dances from the Low Countries

Dances from the Central Germanic Countries

Discussion Question

Discussion Question 1

In the 1930s and 1940s, the Nazis used German folk dance as a propaganda tool to fuel their nationalist ideology. Performing traditional German folk dance was considered a social signal of membership in the so-called “master race”. Special dances were even invented for the Hitler Youth. During the same period, German folk dancing was rarely performed in the United States, even among German immigrant communities. After the war, it took some time for German dancing to return to the USA, but in the 1950s, many US soldiers brought German dances back, revitalizing the tradition. What does all of this tell us about the role of folk dancing in politics?

Media Attributions

Figure 9.9: Map of the non-Scandinavian Germanic countries, with the Low Countries on the Atlantic and the Central Germanic countries in the middle © John W. W. Powell, used with permission. Geospatial data is cited in map

Finland is sometimes incorrectly included as part of Scandinavia. It is a Norse country, but technically is not part of Scandinavia. ↵

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