Information Literacy

Whatever strategies or tools are used to try to combat disinformation, they are all attempting to improve people’s information literacy.

Information literacy is the ability to find, engage with, evaluate, appreciate, and communicate information. Because information comes in various forms, there are sub-categories of information literacy for each information type. In the modern world, and as the primary focus of this book, we’re concerned with two specific types of information literacy: news literacy and digital literacy.

News literacy involves knowledge of:

• How news is produced,
• How news is shared
• How to identify valid sources of news
• How to differentiate between fact and opinion

Digital literacy involves knowledge of:

• How digital information is created
• How digital information is shared
• The tools, technologies, and resources to safely find and engage with digital information

As you can probably imagine, these different types of literacy often overlap and interact with each other, especially when looking at digital spaces like social media platforms. Knowing how the platform works encompasses digital literacy, but since news (or things purporting to be news) are commonly shared on that platform, news literacy is just as important.

Below, we’ll discuss some popular frameworks of information literacy, as well as the most important skills for good literacy.

Although the concept of information literacy can be beneficial in many different fields, it generally falls under the authority and domain of Library Sciences. As such, the American Library Association (ALA) has several models or frameworks of information literacy that they endorse. Some of these frameworks are meant for a specific context (such as a framework for history students), but we’ll focus on one that deals more broadly with higher education: the ACRL Framework of Information Literacy.

In 2015, the Association of Colleges and Research Libraries (ACRL) created a Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education. This framework is organized into six distinct frames, each consisting of a core concept, key practices, and dispositions required for successful information literacy.

Frame 1 – Authority is Constructed and Contextual

The core concept of this frame is that there is no such thing as inherent authority. Authority is given by a particular community, and may or may not be recognized in other communities.

Some key practices for this frame are:

• The ability to define different types of authority. For instance, subject expertise (or scholarship) is one type of authority, and societal position (like holding a public office) is a different type of authority. Both expertise involve different criteria, and are useful in different contexts.
• The ability to recognize that while one specific source (such as a popular individual in a field, or an oft-cited article) may be common, other valid authorities may still be challenging the authority of that source.
• The ability to recognize the development of your own authority, and the responsibilities that entails.

Some important dispositions for this frame are:

• Developing and maintaining an open mind when encountering information, especially when conflicting perspectives are involved.
• Developing a sense of skepticism when assessing content, as well as an awareness of your own potential biases.
• Questioning traditional means of conferring authority, as well as the benefit of a diverse range of voices and perspectives.
• Developing an awareness that the above practices and dispositions require frequent self-evaluation.

Frame 2 – Information Creation as a Process

The core concept of this frame is that information is produced to convey a message, and can involve various steps, such as research, review, revision, and delivery. These steps can be different depending on the context of both the creator(s) and the intended audience, and will ultimately produce different types of information.

Some key practices for this frame are:

• The ability to identify the strengths and weaknesses of different information creation processes.
• The ability to assess the strongest information creation process for a particular information need.
• The ability to recognize that information will be perceived differently depending on how it’s packaged and delivered.

Some important dispositions for this frame are:

• Learning the process of matching an information need with an appropriate information package.
• Understanding that the initial stages of information creation can involve various modes of communication and research that may differ from the method in which that information is ultimately delivered.
• A desire to learn and be informed of all the possible delivery methods of information, including new and emerging methods.

Frame 3 – Information Has Value

The core concept of this frame is that information not only has value, but can have different value depending on context. For instance, information can have educational value, influential value, commodity value, etc. As such, different political and socioeconomic interests can influence how information is created and disseminated.

Some key practices for this frame are:

• Giving credit to original ideas of others through proper attribution.
• Understanding that the concept of intellectual property is a legal and social construct, that can vary between counties and cultures.
• Recognizing that some groups are marginalized and underrepresented in information creation, as well as the issues around different groups having different ease of access to information.

Some important dispositions for this frame are:

• Valuing the skill, time, and effort needed to produce information.
• Viewing yourself as being a contributor of knowledge, not just a consumer of knowledge.
• An examination of your own information privilege.

Frame 4 – Research as Inquiry

The core concept of this frame is that research is an iterative process. Through collaborative investigation and conversation, not only is new information created, but more complex questions arise. These new questions are then explored through the same research process, which will again create new questions, and so on.

Some key practices for this frame are:

• The ability to monitor gathered information for gaps and weaknesses.
• The ability to break complex questions into smaller, simpler questions that are easier and more efficient to tackle.
• The ability to synthesize gathered information from multiple sources, and draw reasonable conclusions based on analysis and interpretation of that information.

Some important dispositions for this frame are:

• Considering research an open-ended exploration that requires multiple perspectives, intellectual flexibility, and a critical mind.
• Valuing intellectual curiosity in creating and exploring new questions and methods of investigation.
• Demonstrating intellectual humility by being open and aware of your own limitations.

Frame 5 – Scholarship as Conversation

The core concept of this frame is that research is a discursive practice, meaning multiple and competing ideas are created and debated as part of the process. Sometimes this can eventually lead to overwhelming scholarly consensus, but often it is a continued process of debate.

Some key practices for this frame are:

• Identifying and evaluating the scholarly pieces that contribute to a discipline, while understanding that any single work is not necessarily representative of the majority perspective.
• Personally contributing to scholarly conversation, while recognizing the barriers to entry of certain venues.
• Summarize the changes to scholarly opinion over time on a particular topic in a discipline.

Some important dispositions for this frame are:

• Recognition that you are usually entering an ongoing scholarly conversation, not a finished one.
• A desire to seek out and participate in different venues of scholarly conversation.
• Suspending judgment of any particular piece of scholarship until you understand its context within the larger scholarly conversation.

Frame 6 – Searching as Strategic Exploration

The core concept of this frame is that searching for information is often nonlinear and iterative, requiring both a wide range of information sources and an intellectual flexibility to change course as new information is gathered.

Some key practices of this frame are:

• The ability to determine the proper scope of a search, relative to the information need.
• The ability to find, identify, and use different information systems and sources.
• The ability to use both divergent thinking (generating multiple creative ideas) and convergent thinking (selecting the most singularly appropriate idea or source) when searching for information.

Some important dispositions for this frame are:

• Exhibiting mental creativity and flexibility.
• Realizing that searching for information may take multiple attempts and require both a variety of sources and help from other professionals.
• Persisting in a search in the face of challenges and setbacks.

Another useful framework for information literacy was developed in 1999 (and expanded in 2011) by the Society of College, National, and University Libraries (SCONUL). This framework is more simplified and can apply easier to a general population. It’s comprised of seven core pillars (SCONUL, 2011):

1. Identify –  this is the ability to identify a personal need for information. Or, put another way, the ability to acknowledge the importance of habitually seeking out new information.
2. Scope – this is the ability to accurately asses current knowledge, including identifying gaps in knowledge.
3. Plan – this is the ability to construct strategies to locate the desired information.
4. Gather – this is the ability to then execute those strategies and actually access that information.
5. Evaluate – this is the ability to distinguish between different types of information and sources of information, as well as then processing and comparing that information.
6. Manage – this is the ability to organize information in a professional and ethical manner.
7. Present – this is the ability to apply the knowledge gained.

Importantly, this model stresses that these pillars are not linear, but rather circular. This means that you can be developing in multiple pillars at once, even independent of each other. Still, someone who is highly information literate would be strong in all seven pillars.

Section 3.1: Critical Thinking

A vital skill for information literacy is critical thinking. While lately this has been a term that’s been used flippantly or flat out incorrectly, critical thinking is essentially the ability to form a judgment based on rationally, skeptically, and unbiasedly analyzing available information.

As it turns out, the importance of critical thinking skills is something almost everyone can agree on, with one study showing 94% of people identifying them as being of high importance (Reboot Foundation, 2019). On the downside, about 86% of those same respondents felt that critical thinking skills were lacking in the population at large. Everyone wants it, but nobody’s getting it. And although media and academia often like to cite the professions or situations where critical thinking skills would be most valuable, the reality is that virtually everyone in the modern world could apply and benefit from them.

Critical thinking is comprised of a wide array of sub-skills – far more than we can comprehensively get into here. But there are certain aspects that are particularly important for the information literacy we’re concerned with:

Identifying Biases – can you accurately asses when a source of information likely has a bias, and what that bias is? Can you accurately identify your own potential biases? This is essential in processing and comparing information.

Inference – can you draw a logical conclusion from the information you have? This means coming to the conclusion yourself, as opposed to simply being presented a possible conclusion within the information you have.

Relevance – can you prioritize the importance of different information? Especially as it applies to a specific problem or issue at hand? (for example: can you distinguish that a statistic is likely to have greater relevance than an anecdote?)

Lastly, critical thinking also requires the use of metacognition, or the awareness you have of your own thought processes. This is vital not only in evaluating and improving your thinking in retrospect, but for knowing and applying the best problem solving strategies before tackling a certain problem.

Section 3.2: Lateral Reading

Another incredibly helpful skill for good information literacy is called lateral reading. Essentially, it’s a way to use active critical thinking skills as part of the act of reading. Created by Sam Wineburg and Sarah McGraw in 2017, lateral reading refers to the concept of verifying what you’re reading as you’re reading it, using sources outside the original content. This last part is essential, and is what distinguishes lateral reading from vertical reading, where verification is done only within the source being verified.

Let’s give an example. Imagine someone clicks on a link their friend shared on social media. They’re taken to a site called climatetruth.com and an article about climate change. They read the article and as questions or concerns arise for them, they only stay within that website to address those concerns. They look at the logo, they search other areas of the site, maybe read the “About Us” section. But they never leave the website while they’re reading the article. This person would be practicing vertical reading.

Now, imagine that same situation, but this time when questions or concerns arise, the person opens a new tab in their browser and does some verification outside of the website in question. They do a google search to see if the site or organization are referenced anywhere else. If a strong claim is made in the article, they’ll see if they can find other sources (preferably that they already know are reputable) that support or agree with that claim. Now this person would be practicing lateral reading.

In Wineburg and McGraw’s (2017) initial study, they found that reading laterally significantly decreased the chances of believing inaccurate information, even among professionals. Disreputable sources can employ many tricks to make themselves appear credible; verifying a source using external means is vital for uncovering a more accurate understanding of the source.

Section 3.3: The CRAAP Test

In 2004, librarian Sarah Blakeslee developed a cheeky acronym for what she felt were the important aspects of evaluating information. This is a generalized system designed for anyone interacting with information, not just academics. The CRAAP test consists of: Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, and Purpose.

Currency – The timeliness of the information. When was it published? Has it been revised?

Relevance – The importance of the information for your current needs. Is the audience and level of this information appropriate for your topic?

Authority – The source of the information. What are the author’s credentials? Are they qualified to write on this topic?

Accuracy – The reliability of the information. Is the language unbiased? Are claims supported with evidence? Has the information gone through any review?

Purpose – The reason the information. What is its purpose (to teach, to sell, to entertain)? Is the information fact or opinion?

These are important questions to keep in mind when dealing with information, and also straightforward enough that they could be easily incorporated into information literacy education at young ages.

Life has always been inescapably filled with information, but the digital age has caused the volume and dissemination of that information to increase exponentially, making information literacy absolutely vital in the fight against disinformation. It instills skepticism and intellectual vigilance as important virtues. Disinformation strategies directly take advantage of the gaps in information literacy (much as less scrupulous actors have always taken advantage of gaps in all forms of literacy), particularly the tendency to passively engage with information. When active and critical engagement becomes habitual, the likelihood of being deceived becomes significantly less.

Unfortunately, some of the concepts of information literacy are easily distorted for malicious, harmful, or inaccurate purposes. The refrain of “doing your own research” has become as common as it is improperly used. That idea can only have value when it’s accompanied by a high degree of information literacy. Otherwise, skepticism becomes conflated with rejection of anything popular. Information literacy isn’t just about the skills it engenders, but about the values as well. It’s not about abstractly “doing your own research” as much as it is about verifying the information you engage with.

While it’s useful to have frameworks that are specific to an academic context, information literacy shouldn’t be viewed as an exclusive to higher education. Anyone in a modern society could benefit from becoming more information literate. As such, it would be most effective to introduce it as a concept at a young age, and as a fundamental part of the education process.