We find ourselves in a new language teaching landscape, and the use of L1, once completely out of pedagogical sight, has come back into view. Translation has a key role to play. Indeed, Carreres, Norriega-Sánchez and Calduch (2018) propose that language pedagogy has entered a translation turn. This proposal is supported by findings which show that translation pedagogy improves students’ multilingualism and multiculturalism; literacy and critical thinking; and linguistic skills. Additionally, it has been shown to benefit heritage language learners. Each of these benefits of translation pedagogy will be addressed sequentially in the following subsections.

Multilingual and cultural benefits of translation

Translation is recommended as a pedagogy for a multilingual, multicultural approach to language teaching in which both L1 and L2 are supported in the classroom. As previously noted, the model for success in the language classroom should not be the “native-speakerism” (Cook, 2010, p. 100) supported by the Direct Method and approaches such as CLT. Rather, it should be the ability to move comfortably back and forth between two languages. Translation helps students work towards this multilingual model of success (Cook, 2010; González-Davies, 2017).

In tandem with this multilingual approach, translation also offers multicultural learning. Phipps and González (2004) argue that translation is languaging, and languaging is border crossing, or indeed border dissolving. As borders are eliminated, students have the opportunity for cultural learning. For example, through translation, Gonzalez-Davies (2017) argues that students are able to “Work within more than one culture efficiently” and “bridge cultures by foregrounding the study of ‘ways of thinking and doing’ of the members of a community and by noticing similarities as well as differences” (p. 128). Cuéllar Lázaro (2004) also asserts that translation is a communicative act which helps students understand culture and pragmatics in addition to language and register. Translation, then, can help students develop multilingualism and multiculturalism.

Literacy benefits of translation

Translation in the language classroom has also been argued to advance student literacy. Benefits can include gains in reading and writing (Canga-Alonso & Rubio-Goita, 2016; Colina & Lafford, 2017). Colina (2002) addresses benefits in reading comprehension and writing when taught through translation methodologies, noting that reading comprehension strategies can be taught with translation so that students are not doing “search and replace” (p. 11) for single words but are instead considering the text as a whole, thereby improving comprehension. Similarly, she argues that writing taught for translation purposes mirrors the process model of writing and helps to develop students’ critical thinking skills, long-term memory, and organizing and deciding skills, as opposed to simply having students produce vocabulary or grammar structures (2002). It can also be helpful as an aided writing activity in which students can write without also having to worry about coming up with content.

Kern (2000), utilizing the New London Group’s multiliteracies model of situated practice, critical framing, overt instruction, and transformed practice, has developed a framework for literacy in language teaching. He notes that translation is of particular utility in transformed practice, the culmination of four prongs of the multiliteracies model. In transformed practice, learners apply their knowledge in real-world situations, thus making new meaning and transforming their prior knowledge (2000). Translation activities allow students to use linguistic and/or cultural knowledge and apply it in a new context, negotiating new meaning in a transformative way.

Reading comprehension; process, critical thinking, memory, organizing and decision making in writing; and negotiation of meaning in transformed contexts are all literacy benefits of translation.

Linguistic benefits of translation

Acquisition of linguistic elements is an additional gain seen through translation pedagogy. Canga-Alonso and Rubio-Goita (2014) discuss the goal of language improvement and acquisition through pedagogical translation and note that translation boosts knowledge of language systems, helping students to make comparisons between languages and helping them benefit from comprehension of second language features. Similarly, Rivera-Mills and Gantt (1999) maintain that through translation, students can gain a more thorough understanding or how the linguistic system functions together as a whole, rather than seeing only discrete parts learned through grammar instruction. González-Davies (2017) proposes Translation for Other Learning Contexts (TOLC) as a means to improve “linguistic mediation skills and intercultural competence” outside of Translation Studies. Through TOLC, students can acquire the skills of noticing language similarities and differences (see also Colina & Lafford, 2017); understanding as they build new knowledge; and deciding on and justifying solutions in the translation process.

Laufer and Girsai (2008) studied the effects of translation on vocabulary acquisition. They hypothesized that vocabulary teaching in the second language would benefit from contrastive analysis with L1 through translation and applied three other vocabulary-learning hypotheses to do so. They start with the “noticing hypothesis,” which states that learners need to notice forms and meanings to be able to store new vocabulary in the long term memory. The second is the “pushed-output” hypothesis, which states that if learners stretch their linguistic resources, they will improve production and language development; output is more effective than input for vocabulary learning. Translation to L2 is pushed output. Finally, they applied the “task-induced involvement load hypothesis,” which states that vocabulary learning works best with tasks with an “involvement load,” that is, in which students are motivated to do their tasks, must search for meaning, and must decide if they have made appropriate vocabulary decisions. They found that contrastive analysis through translation resulted in higher vocabulary retention than non-contrastive analysis, that pushed output activities were more engaging and cognitively demanding, and that involvement load tasks for translation were high. They concluded that while meaningful communication has been the goal of CLT, methods such as contrastive-analysis through translation may in fact be better.

In sum, linguistic benefits of translation pedagogy include increased knowledge of linguistic systems, ability to compare languages and ability to notice elements of L2. They also include improved vocabulary acquisition through comparison of L1 and L2, a higher “pushed output,” and greater involvement in student tasks.

Benefits of translation for heritage language speakers

Translation as a pedagogy also benefits heritage language learners. According to González-Davies (2017), heritage languages and translanguaging play a key role in the learning of additional languages, placing heritage language learners in a unique position to benefit from translation pedagogy. They can also benefit from personal experience translating and interpreting as many have served as child interpreters. In the United States, heritage language speakers at the university level who have participated in community service translation programs may show gains in critical language awareness, linguistic skills, and in understanding sociolinguistic and sociopolitical goals (Colina & Lafford, 2017). See Colina and Lafford (2017) for an activity designed to help heritage students develop register awareness, as understanding and expanding domains of use tend to be a challenge for these learners.

Similarly, Mellinger and Gasca-Jiménez (2019) examine the challenges and opportunities for heritage learners in the interpreting classroom, hoping to encourage a link between heritage language and translation pedagogy. They observe that translation can be used as a means for heritage students to acquire additional dialects and to switch between registers, to “normalize the linguistic practices and experiences of HL learners,” (p. 956) often as language brokers within their families and communities; increase the lexicon; and develop “multilingual identity, intercultural competence, linguistic skills, and metalinguistic knowledge” (p. 956). They also note the benefits of peer-to-peer teaching in mixed L1-L2 groups.

Summary

The use of translation may bring multifaceted benefits to the classroom. Its use can benefit L2, multilingual, or heritage language students; increase cultural awareness and competence; and improve literacy and linguistic ability. These benefits argue in favor of not only judicious use of students’ L1 in the world language classroom, but of open translanguaging and translating. The next section explains how you can incorporate translation into your classroom in an informed manner.