8 O – P
Omega squared ω2 (see effect size)
Operant (behavior)
This term concerns a class of behaviors controlled by consequences. Operants are typically thought of as volitional or semi-volitional, as opposed to classical conditioned behaviors (that are merely reflexive). Operants develop and strengthen because they are reinforced. For example, “Nick developed the operant behavior of complementing his classmates because he often received praise and attention when he did so.”
Orthography (orthographic)
Orthography concerns the symbols in written language. Thus, orthography is important regarding the visual aspects of reading and, especially, spelling. In school psychology, orthographic processing problems are often contrasted with sound-based or phonological processing problems as one potential cause of reading and spelling problems. This is particularly true regarding irregular words in English (e.g., “though”) that cannot be recognized or spelled by relying on by phonetics. In other words, orthographic processing enables visual word-form representations to be stored.
Orton-Gillingham approach (to reading instruction)
This instructional approach was devised in the 1940s. It represents one of the first “clinical” reading programs, that is a program designed expressly for students who have failed with regular instructional techniques. (Many students in the group for whom the Orton-Gillingham approach was initially developed would now be given specific learning disability or dyslexia designations). The program is important because it exemplifies a detailed and structured remedial reading program and because it is multi-sensory in nature (e.g., uses visual-auditory-kinesthetic elements). Aspects of the Orton-Gillingham approach have resurfaced in contemporary instructional programs, some of which have been subjected to efficacy studies. Nonetheless, the Orton-Gillingham approach itself has not been well studied.
The following link from the Florida Center on Reading Research may be helpful. http://www3.barringtonschools.org/nayatt/Documents/Response%20to%20Intervention–Orton_Gillingham_Approach.pdf
Other Health Impairment (federal) definition (OHI)
According to IDEA, OHI concerns students having limited strength, vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli, that results in limited alertness with respect to the educational environment, that (1.) is due to chronic or acute health problems such as asthma, attention deficit disorder or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, diabetes, epilepsy, a heart condition, hemophilia, lead poisoning, leukemia, nephritis, rheumatic fever, sickle cell anemia, and Tourette syndrome; and (2.) adversely affects a child’s educational performance.
Also see the following link: https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.8/c
Overlearning
Overlearning refers to an instructional strategy during which practice continues past the point of initial mastery. For example, a third-grade student who is learning addition facts (e.g., 2 + 4; 3 + 4) eventually reaches 100% correct on a set of problems with sums less than 10. This might have been accomplished, for example, after 12 practice trials. This student, however, might continue to practice such addition facts for 10 trials after initial mastery. She could then be said to have overlearned these facts. Overlearning appears to help skills reach a level of automaticity. The following link may be helpful:
Palilalia
This behavioral phenomenon refers to repeating one’s own words or sounds in recurrent and odd ways. Palilalia is important for school psychologists to recognize because it sometimes occurs among individuals with autism but rarely among those without autism.
Pamelor® (see anti-depressant medications)
PANDAS (Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Strep)
This is a rare neurological condition that arises acutely following a strep infection. It appears that some children develop antibodies to strep and that these antibodies in turn react negatively with parts of the brain. This can result in symptoms that mimic tics and Tourette disorder. The condition may also present with de novo symptoms of OCD, ADHD, affective disorders, and anxiety evident in between 32% and 80% of children with PANDAS (Swedo et al., 1998). It appears that symptoms dissipate over time. Understandably, any presentation like this can prove confusing to a student, her teacher and her parents. Consequently, most school psychologists would consult with their school nurse or speak with the student’s primary care physician in the rare instances in which they encounter novel symptoms such as these.
The following link is available from National Institutes of Health: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/publications/pandas/index.shtml
Parnate® (see anti-depressant medications)
Parsimony (law of)
The concept that explanations relying on fewer principles are preferable to those relying on more, all other things being equal. This seems especially relevant to school psychologists involved in assessment and test interpretation. For example, it is argued that interpretation of many tests, and especially their individual index and subtest scores, may lack scientific foundation and violate the Law of Parsimony. Specifically, full scale IQ may predict academic achievement as well, or nearly as well, as several scores arising from a complex battery (see, for example, McGill & Busse, 2015, regarding interpretation of the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities; Shrank, Mather & McGrew, 2014).
PASS (Planning, Attention, Simultaneous, Successive) theory
PASS is a theory of cognitive processing that originally sprang from first-hand study of the brain by Russian A. R. Luria. His work, especially concerning soldiers afflicted with focal brain injuries, helped to solidify the recognition that many important brain functions are modularized. That is, specific functions are, at least partially, localized. Humans are able to execute complex tasks when modularized functions come together (via interconnections in the brain).
Inter-disciplinary work in North America and elsewhere cutting across fields of cognitive psychology, clinical neuropsychology and psychometrics helped formalize the theory popularly known as PASS (Naglieri, 1997). When applied to the concept of intelligence, the PASS theory takes the following form. Intelligence can be conceptualized as comprised of three aspects. The first of these is attention, which is essential to provide sufficient focus for the accomplishment of cognitive tasks. A second of these is information processing, which is broadly conceptualized as processing information simultaneously (where all elements are available at once) and successively (where all elements are not entirely available during the task and where task elements are processed in sequential order). A third element is planning, which includes aspects like purposeful control of attention, use of information processes, and self-regulation to achieve goals. The PASS model arguably provides a rich and complex conception of intelligence.
As is true of the work of Luria generally, the PASS theory particularly can help school psychologists when they consider students in the context of their classroom and how their development fits with classroom demands. More importantly, Naglieri, Das and Goldstein (2014) have developed a psychometric assessment tool that rests on the PASS theory, entitled the Cognitive Assessment System-2 (CAS-2). The original CAS (and now the CAS-2) affords profiles that can be used to plan instructional activities, including some that are designed to boost weaknesses consistent with the broader PASS model (see Iseman & Naglieri, 2011).
Paxil® (see anti-depressant medications)
Pedagogy
The science and art of teaching.
Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Strep (see PANDAS)
Peer tutoring (such as for students with ADHD)
This involves individual or small group work with a classmate or older student who tutors. Whether completing work in class or practicing academic skills outside of class, many students with ADHD (and related problems) suffer from poor organization and weak task persistence. Thus, it makes sense that pairing such students with a more responsible and better-focused classmate may ameliorate some classroom difficulties. This is the idea behind peer tutoring. It has become a popular practice, with some research support regarding both improved classroom behavior and enhanced academic performance.
The following link from Duke University provides additional detail https://childandfamilypolicy.duke.edu/pdfs/schoolresearch/2012_PolicyBriefs/Nguyen_Policy_Brief.pdf.
Permanent products
As the name implies, this refers to tangible artifacts arising from a student’s classwork or her performance. The most obvious examples are completed worksheets or homework logs used as evidence in a behavior intervention plan. For school psychologists conducting assessments, however, permanent products are also an important source of background information (review of work samples from prior academic years) as well as indications of current academic skill levels. Moreover, it is sometimes argued that these products have excellent content and ecological validity because they match precisely the concerns expressed by teachers or parents when a student is struggling academically.
For additional information, see the following link from the University of Kansas: http://www.specialconnections.ku.edu/?q=assessment/data_based_decision_making/teacher_tools/permanent_product_measurement
Phonemic awareness
According to the National Reading Panel, phonemic awareness is “the knowledge that spoken words can be broken apart into smaller segments of sound known as phonemes.”
Pica
Pica refers to the eating of nonnutritive substances. See DSM-5 page 329 for more details.
Polygenetic inheritance
A term from genetics that denotes traits or conditions whose appearance arise from the influence of many, not just one, gene. Common examples of characteristics with polygenetic influences are height and IQ. Also see entry on Mendelian disorders.
Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS)
PBIS refers to school-wide programs designed to offer tiers of supports. As such PBIS is one example of Multi-Tiered Systems of Supports (MTSS). In PBIS, Tier 1 concerns campus wide elements such as those designed to improve school climate, avoid punitive measures when behavior problems arise, and afford teachers maximum time for instruction. Tier 2 concerns more tailored or more intensive interventions for students with recurrent problems or those identified via screening (e.g., students at risk because of exposure to trauma or who have been bullied). This tier concerns fewer students. Tier 3 offers the most intensive interventions and is reserved for far fewer students (e.g., those with documented depression). Especially at Tier 2 and Tier 3, interventions are selected that have gained evidence of effectiveness in empirical studies.
Positive and negative predictive value (see diagnostic utility statistics)
Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is the phenomenon of strengthening a particular behavior by adding something after its occurrence. Behaviorists studying positive reinforcement in the laboratory can quantify changes in behavior (e.g., a rat pressing a lever) by the addition of something (e.g., food following lever presses). In schools, positive reinforcement might be exemplified by a class clown making silly noises promptly followed by attention from classmates. These classmates’ actions might positively reinforce (and make more probable) silly noisemaking.
Critically, positive reinforcement is defined by its effect on behavior. Post-response additions that strengthen behavior are positive reinforcers and those that fail to do so are not. This means that the concept of positive reinforcement is often misunderstood. For example, consider the following statement, “Despite the use of every positive reinforcement I could find, I have been unable to change Maria’s behavior.” Positive reinforcement is defined by increases in target behavior, not mere intentions to do so.
Many variations of positive reinforcement exist, and school psychologists benefit from knowing about their various classroom applications, such as in behavioral contracts and token economies.
See the following link for additional information on behavioral contracts:http://www.freeprintablebehaviorcharts.com/behavior%20contracts%20pdf/school%20attendance%20contract.pdf.
This link concerns token economies: http://165.139.150.129/intervention/Token.pdf.
Positive symptoms/negative symptoms (of psychiatric or neurological disorders)
Positive symptoms refer to the appearance of symptoms (or signs) not evident before onset of an illness or condition (such as psychiatric or neurological conditions). By contrast, negative symptoms refer to the loss of functioning following the onset of an illness or condition. A classic example is found in schizophrenia. With onset of the disorder, some individuals lose previous functions (e.g., experience reduced emotional expression) and/or they develop new symptoms (e.g., onset of hallucinations). The former exemplify negative symptoms, the latter positive symptoms. Parallel examples sometimes manifest in students with traumatic brain injury (TBI). Loss of previous memory functions represent TBI-related negative symptoms, whereas the appearance of de novo impulsiveness constitutes positive symptomology.
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
PTSD is a disorder characterized by emergent symptoms (e.g., emotional blunting, flash backs, anxiety) following a severely traumatic event. Critically for school psychologists, PTSD exists in youth at rates greater than often anticipated (also see trauma). See DSM-5, page 271.
For additional information also see the National Institute of Health link: https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/post-traumatic-stress-disorder-ptsd/index.shtml
Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS)
PWS is a genetic condition most often due to a microdeletion in a portion of chromosome #15 (more rarely due to inheriting two copies of chromosome #15 from mother or rearrangement of genetic material on chromosome #15). Strangely, when the deletion occurs in mother’s egg Angelman syndrome arises, whereas if the deletion occurs in father’s sperm PWS arises. It Is important for school psychologists to recognize because of the array of developmental and behavioral problems typically associated with PWS. These include developmental delay, with mean full scale IQs in various studies ranging from 44.5 to 62.3 (Whittington & Holland, 2017). These studies also found large IQ score ranges. Also commonly reported are relative weaknesses in math, reading comprehension, and expressive language. One of the most critical aspects of the syndrome is hyperphagia (uncontrolled eating). Voracious eating, sometimes including inappropriate food consumption (e.g., raw chicken) or pica, forces families to lock and secure food at home (McAllister, Whittington, & Holland, 2011). Psychiatric diagnoses are widely reported. One study of adults with PWS, for example, found high rates of mood disorders, including psychotic features, depending on the particular anomaly on chromosome #15 (Soni et al., 2007).
Additional information is available from the following NIH link: ghr.nlm.nih.gov/condition/prader-willi-syndrome#genes.
The Prader-Willi Syndrome Association also provide information: www.pwsausa.org/
Pragmatic language
Pragmatic language concerns the social aspects of language, such as language used to form and maintain interpersonal relationships. Children with disorders of pragmatic language typically fail to modify their communication style to match the social situations in which they find themselves. They often lack understanding of the implicit rules that underlie conversation (e.g, turn taking). Styles such as these may be associated with a condition now listed in DSM-5 “social (pragmatic) communication disorder” (see DSM-5, page 47). Pragmatic language problems also exist in children with autism spectrum disorder (see DSM-5, page 50).
Also, see the following link from the American Speech and Hearing Association https://www.asha.org/public/speech/development/Social-Communication/.
Praxis®
An array of tests for professional educators designed to verify the presence of knowledge and skills. This includes a Praxis test specific to school psychology that is sometimes used by training programs and professional organizations (e.g., NASP).
See the following link from the Educational Testing Service: https://www.ets.org/praxis/nasp/overview
Premack principle (for finding positive reinforcers)
This principle is named after the psychologist David Premack. It is not uncommon for school psychologists to have trouble finding viable reinforcers when they devise behavior intervention plans for students. Relatedly, school psychologists might hear statements like these when consulting with a teacher: (1.) “I keep using positive reinforcers, but they have no effect.” (2.) “This student is motivated by absolutely nothing.” Statement #1 is illogical because a positive reinforcer is defined by its ability to actually increase the frequency of a behavior (i.e., it must work to be called a positive reinforcer). Statement #2 turns out to be more problematic.
The Premack principle can often help. The notion is predicated on the inference that participating in certain behaviors is itself reinforcing. If this is so, “high frequency behaviors” can be used as reinforcers to boost target behaviors that are at low frequency. It is no surprise that when teachers consult with school psychologists that they are in fact mostly concerned about “low frequency behaviors” (e.g., complimenting peers, finishing seatwork) that they hope to turn into high frequency behaviors.
To find a high frequency behavior, school psychologists either carefully observe the student in the natural environment and/or conduct a detailed teacher interview about the student’s actions. As an example, a student may be observed to repeatedly retrieve markers from her desk and commence drawing whenever possible, or she may frequently attempt to engage Emily, a classmate, in conversation during class or recess. If this student’s problem is “low frequency” completion of math worksheets, then a behavioral contingency becomes apparent. Her high frequency behavior is a candidate reinforcer in this contingent arrangement. That is, access to Emily or access to markers (both high frequency) might be made contingent on greater math worksheet completion. The Premack principle, thus, is a tool when no obvious reinforcers exist.
Premature birth
Full term is considered 40 weeks of gestational age, whereas babies less than 37 weeks are considered premature. The shorter the gestational age (i.e., the more premature) the greater the risk of complications, which are listed below. Complications #3-6 are especially important for school psychologists.
- Initial breathing
- Early feeding
- Hearing
- Vision
- Developmental and cognitive problems
- Cerebral palsy
Preterm birth (especially extremely preterm birth, i.e., < 28 weeks) and low birth weight (especially extremely low birth weight, i.e., < 1000 grams) are associated with marked risk of cognitive and academic problems when these babies reach school age (Hutchinson, de Luca, Doyle, Roberts, & Anderson, 2013).
Premorbid
Premorbid refers to an individual’s status (e.g., regarding IQ, adaptive skills, peer relations) before onset of an illness. For school psychologists, this often concerns a student’s functional levels before either a psychiatric condition (e.g., before onset of schizophrenia) or a neurological condition (e.g., before a traumatic brain injury, before starting chemotherapy and radiation treatment for cancer).
Primary reinforcer
A positive reinforcer, such as food, that does not require a history of conditioning to acquire its potency. Most primary reinforcers are biological in nature. In general, primary reinforcers are only used under special circumstances. This might include instances in which other reinforcers (i.e., secondary reinforcers) prove unavailable or are shown to be ineffective. For example, a preschooler with autism might participate in a program designed to increase her eye contact with small quantities of fruit juice used as a primary reinforcer. This might be acceptable if praise and encouragement fail to work.
Pristiq® (see anti-depressant medications)
Procedural (implicit, non-declarative) memory
As contrasted with declarative memory, procedural memory is supported by distinct brain structures (i.e., outside the hippocampi and related structures). Procedural memory concerns processes mostly inaccessible to consciousness. They require practice (or exposure) before acquisition. Procedural memory concerns the following (Squire & Wixted, 2011):
- skills and habits
- simple forms of conditioning
- emotional learning
- perceptual priming
- habituation
Procedural memory is important for school psychologists to recognize because these capabilities may be preserved when brain injuries affect other memory systems. For example, after a head injury a student may be unable to retain new memories effectively but can still execute highly practiced skills (e.g., writing, arithmetic computation). In contrast to long-term declarative memory and short-term working memory, procedural memory is assessed by few psychometric tests.
For more information, see the following link: http://www.livescience.com/43595-procedural-memory.html. Also see declarative (explicit) memory.
Procentra® (see stimulants and other ADHD medications)
Prodrome
Prodrome refers to the early signs of a disorder. For example, in schizophrenia progressively shrinking interests and declining socialization may constitute a prodrome. A prodromal stage of a condition is often a harbinger of classical and severe symptoms, such as hallucinations or impaired reality testing in schizophrenia.
Prognosis
Refers to predicting outcomes or impending problems associated with a particular diagnosis. Commonly used in medicine, the notion of prognosis also has potential value in school psychology. This is particularly the case when it is linked with longitudinal research. For example, a group of Canadian researchers (Beitchman et al., 2001) followed young children with either speech or language problems (as well as controls) longitudinally for more than 14 years. Among boys, they discovered that language impairment, but not speech impairments alone, were associated with markedly elevated risk of later psychiatric problems. Results were less clear for girls (although, like boys, girls with language impairment encountered elevated risk of learning problems). Empirical information such as this might help guide allocation of limited treatment services. In this regard, taking steps to mitigate potential psychiatric problems among young boys with language impairments makes considerable sense, whereas the imperative to do so is much less compelling among those with speech impairments only. Without information about prognosis, such planning would be difficult or perhaps even impossible.
Projective techniques
Projective techniques represent an extremely diverse set of assessment procedures that involve open-ended responses from youth and (generally) qualitative rather than quantitative scoring by psychologists. All of these techniques rest on the projective hypothesis. This hypothesis implies individuals “project” their own feelings, thoughts, needs, and attitudes when presented with ambiguous stimuli (e.g., inkblots) or open-ended probes (make up a story about the people in this [equivocal] picture). Historically, the notion of projection relates to classical defense mechanisms (comparable to other defense mechanisms such as denial or rationalization) and thus is inherently tied to Freudian theory and to the notion of the unconscious. Accordingly, this entire set of techniques has encountered declining interest as Freudian psychology’s influence has waned. Still, practicing school psychologists sometimes themselves use projective techniques. Other school psychologists may see clinic-based reports in which practitioners used inkblot techniques (e.g., Rorschach), story techniques (e.g., Thematic Apperception Test, Roberts Apperception Test), sentence completion techniques (e.g., Rotter Incomplete Sentence Blank) and drawing techniques (e.g., Draw-a-Person, House-Tree-Person, Kinetic Family Drawing, Kinetic School Drawing).
Prolixin® (see anti-psychotic medications)
Prosody
Prosody concerns an aspect of language that relates to intonation, stress, and inflection such that these elements correspond to the context and intent of communication. Children with social (pragmatic) communication disorder (see DSM-5 page 47) and autism spectrum disorder (see DSM-5 page 50) may have little ability to impart prosody in their speech. Prosody, however, is sometimes seen among children with neither of these conditions.
Prozac® (see anti-depressant medications)
Psychiatric hospitalization
This represents the most intensive treatment option for children and adolescents with acutely presenting (or especially severe) psychiatric symptoms. So-called “inpatient treatment” is typically restricted to use for stabilization, especially when youngsters represent a threat to self or others. Sometimes, however, inpatient care is used for extremely challenging diagnostic cases or when psychiatric treatment warrants close medical supervision (e.g., there are co-existing psychiatric and medical problems). Specially designated programs for adolescents and those for pre-adolescents typically afford extremely rich staffing ratios consisting of behavioral technicians, educators, nurses, and psychiatrists (often, but not always, child and adolescent psychiatry specialists rather than general psychiatrists) would serve as the attending physician. Because of their restrictive nature and expense, contemporary psychiatric hospitalizations are typified by brief stays and rapid formulation of post-hospital treatment plans.
The following link from the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry may prove informative: http://www.aacap.org/AACAP/Families_and_Youth/Facts_for_Families/FFF-Guide/11-Questions-To-Ask-Before-Psychiatric-Hospitalization-Of-Your-Child-Or-Adolescent-032.aspx
Psychodynamic approach
An approach consistent with the theorization of Sigmund Freud, thus emphasizing the importance of childhood experiences, internal drives and conflicts, and the unconscious.
Punishment
In applied behavior analysis, punishment has a specific meaning. It refers to a behavioral technique that decreases the rate of behavior based on the introduction of something aversive. Like many other behavioral concepts, punishment is determined by its effect on behavior (not merely the intention of behavioral programmers). In general, most behavioral experts emphasize strengthening positive behaviors rather than reducing unwanted behaviors via procedures such as punishment or timeout. Moreover, there are ethical and legal constraints on clinical application of punishment with youth plus restraints on its use in educational settings.
