2 C – D
Callosal agenesis (see corpus callosum)
Categorical
When used in the context of psychological assessment, refers to placing individuals into categories (e.g., students with autism, students with ADHD). During the assessment process, the categorical approach is often contrasted with the dimensional approach (see separate entry for dimensional approach).
Catplyta® (see anti-psychotic medications)
Celexa® (see anti-depressant medications)
Central Auditory Processing (CAP) Disorder
According to the National Institutes of Health, a central auditory processing disorder is “an inability to differentiate, recognize, or understand sounds; hearing and intelligence are normal.”
Although some students may indeed suffer deficits in CAP, meaningful application of the concept in schools may be problematic. First, CAP assessment used in isolation may seem to explain a student’s classroom problems, but the explanation may seem far less compelling in the presence of comprehensive psychoeducational assessment data. Research seems to support this conclusion. When UK researchers used a comprehensive battery (CAP plus cognitive, attention, language, academic measures) non-CAP explanations typically explained classroom problems. It was children’s response variability (presumably indicating attention problems) and their cognitive scores that best predicted outcome variables such as listening and speech-in-noise skills. These results prompted the authors to caution, “APD [auditory processing disorder] is primarily an attention problem and that clinical diagnosis and management….should be based on that premise.” (Moore, Ferguson, Edmondson-Jones, Ratib, & Riley, 2010 p. e382).
Second, it is likely that most childhood CAP assessments occur in audiologists’ offices. Audiologists then sometimes make unilateral judgments about a students’ root problem without consulting other professionals (e.g., school psychologists, speech-language pathologists) whose assessment findings may be compelling. Similarly, it is unknown if most audiologists are capable of (or inclined to) integrate their findings with those of other professionals. Few audiologists seem to attend IEP meetings. Although ruling out hearing problems is of obvious importance whenever a classroom problem exists, school psychologists will need to decide if, and when, ruling out a problem with CAP is also needed.
Cerebral palsy (CP)
CP denotes static (non-progressive) problems with motor control, balance or posture that arises from injury (or impaired development) to motor centers in the brain. For example, circumscribed damage in the right frontal cortex (in the “motor strip”) may result in movement problems evident on the left side of the body. In practice, school psychologists may see students with a history of prematurity presenting with CP (i.e., prematurity is a documented risk factor for CP). Indeed, the structural brain impairment that causes CP often happens prenatally or shortly after birth. Diagnosis of CP is typically established before age 3 years.
The following link provides additional information: https://medlineplus.gov/cerebralpalsy.html
Check-in, check-out (CICO) intervention
This intervention (also sometimes call Behavior Education Program) targets students with minor problems (e.g., non-compliance, poor focus on academic instruction). As might be suspected from its name, the intervention involves a student “checking-in” with a teacher or coordinator in the morning and “checking out” with the same individual at day’s end. At check-in, preparedness is assessed and addressed (e.g., possession of needed books and supplies) and a daily report card is typically supplied. At check-out, points are dispensed as described in the daily report card, rewards might be distributed, and praise dispensed. Copies of reports typically are sent home for parents’ signature. Regular meetings of related school professionals (e.g., a coordinator who oversees behavioral supports) is typical. A systematic review of CICO interventions found generally positive results, with most studies in elementary school suggesting intervention-associated reductions in problem behavior; nearly all high school CICO applications enjoyed favorable results (Hawken, Bundock, Kladis, O’Keefe & Barrett, 2014).
Clinical norms (as contrasted with representative norms)
This refers to a set of norms collected from individuals with a particular disorder or a particular status (e.g., children with ADHD diagnoses; children referred to an outpatient mental health clinic). Obviously, it is necessary for school psychologists in their practice to distinguish test scores derived from representative samples as entirely different from those derived from clinical samples. For example, a T-score of 50 on an index of “inattention” means one thing if associated with representative norms and something entirely different if associated with clinical norms, such as norms for children with ADHD. The former 50 T-score implies average range inattention, whereas the latter 50 T-scores implies inattention at a level like a typical child with ADHD. Sometimes both representative and clinical norms exist. For example, assume a student with suspected intellectual disability has a Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale-III composite standard score below 50 using representative norms and a co-existing composite standard score of approximately 100 using norms for individuals with intellectual disability (clinical norms). This information suggests the child has adaptive skill development quite unlike most typically-developing children but quite like children with intellectual disability. These dual facts may add assurance in reaching a diagnosis over either set of norms alone. Interestingly, a few scales provide only clinical norms (e.g., the Childhood Autism Rating Scale-2; Schopler, Van Bourgondien, Wellman & Love, 2010).
Clozaril® (see anti-psychotic medications)
Cloze procedure
A reading-related technique that involves removing one or more words from a passage of text. If used for skill development purposes, the procedure encourages students to use context clues to fill empty blanks. Typically, students are permitted to read silently or aloud. The emphasis, however, is on the ability to provide an acceptable equivalent of a missing word. This sharpens not only decoding but also reading comprehension skills. If a cloze procedure format is for informal assessment purposes, the process involves tabulating student success in filling the empty blanks. Scores across several items can be used as a simple indication of reading comprehension on the passage involved. Alternatively, a cloze-procedure-like scale (e.g., Woodcock-Johnson – III Reading Comprehension) can be used as part of a standardized reading assessment where raw scores are converted to derived scores (e.g., standard scores or percentile ranks). The example below exemplifies a very brief version of a cloze procedure.
Cognitive behavior therapy (CBT)
CBT is an important non-pharmaceutical option for treatment of depression, anxiety, and PTSD. As its name implies, cognitive behavior therapy uses a host of behavioral principles joined with focus on faulty cognitions that are thought to underlie depression, anxiety, or strong reactions to prior trauma. The diverse array of components comprising a behavioral cognitive therapy regime are exemplified in a study of PTSD conducted by Smith and colleagues (2007). Children in the active treatment group received 10 weeks of individual therapy comprising the following:
- psychoeducation
- activity scheduling to reclaim life
- reliving prior trauma through imagination
- cognitive restructuring
- revisiting the site of the trauma
- stimulus discrimination regarding reminders of the trauma
- work to manage nightmares
- techniques to transform negative images
- behavioral experiments
Following conclusion of CBT treatment, 92% of participants no longer met criteria for PTSD, whereas 42% of individuals on a waitlist still satisfied criteria. Interventions tailored to various disorders, often outlined in detailed manuals, are also available. Although school psychologists themselves may only occasionally engage in CBT, they may still have roles regarding CBT treatment, such as when they serve as an advocate for children or as a liaison with extra-school service providers.
Cohen’s d (see effect size)
Commissurotomy (see corpus callosum)
Comorbidity
It is common for individuals who experience one disorder to concurrently experience one or more additional disorders. Comorbidity concerns the rate of these additional disorders. For example, a review of the literature indicates that the comorbidity rate for a specific learning disability when ADHD is present exceeds 40% (DuPaul, Gormley & Laracy, 2013). Using this example, it is easy to see that school psychologists would need to be vigilant for the prospect of a specific learning disability when a student with pre-existing ADHD is encountered.
One problem with use of comorbidity statistics, however, is the tendency to fall victim to the “inverse probability fallacy.” We are all prone to confusion and think that when two things often go together that their conditional probabilities are the same regardless of which of the two things is taken as a given. Some simple examples make this fallacy clear. It is true that more than 95% of NBA basketball players are taller than 6 feet, whereas it is patently false that 95% of men taller than 6 feet are NBA players. In psychology it is easy to understand that if 75% of individuals with schizophrenia have co-existing depression it does not logically follow that 75% of individuals with depression have co-existing schizophrenia.
Concerta® (see stimulants and other ADHD medications)
Conjoint behavioral consultation
Behavioral consultation, such as conducted by a school psychologist, in which both teacher(s) and parent(s) fill the role of consultees. For more information see Sheridan and Kratochwill, 2007.
Conners Continuous Performance Test-3 (see continuous performance tests)
Consanguinity
Mating of close relatives, often defined as first cousins or closer. Although such practices are rare in the United States in general, and indeed most states have laws prohibiting such marriages, marriages of close relatives continue to exist among some subcultural group. This is important for school psychologists because consanguinious marriages carry a risk for inherited disorders, especially those that are autosomal recessive in nature. One Swedish study conducted in the 1990s illustrates this fact. Reseachers found that 21% of childhood cases of severe intellectual disability in one region were attributable to consanguinous marriage, a finding driven by specific cultural practices in this region (Fernell, 1998).
Continuous performance tests (CPT)
A group of individually administered tests (almost always involving use of a computer or similar electronic device), typically designed to measure students’ ability to focus and inhibit impulses. In CPTs, stimuli are typically presented at a fixed (rapid) pace, over several minutes, as correct responses and errors are tracked electronically. Norms and cut-scores typically exist. At least three continuous performance tests are popular as adjuncts to ADHD diagnosis: the Conner’s Continuous Performance Test-3 (Conners, 2014), the Gordon Diagnostic System (Gordon, 1983), and the Tests of Variables of Attention (TOVA; Greenberg, Holder, Kindschi & Dupuy, 2017). In general, these tests have been criticized for weak sensitivity and specificity (Reilly, Cunningham, Richards, Elbard & Mahoney, 1999; Zelnik, Bennett-Black, Miari, Goez, & Fattal-Valevski, 2012), which suggests that under many circumstances they may add little to ADHD determinations.
Continuous reinforcement (see schedules of reinforcement)
Contralateral
Refers to the opposite side of the body. This is an important concept for school psychologists because there is contralateral expression of many unilateral (one side only) brain problems. Most descending motor pathways and ascending sensory pathways cross between the brain and the body. This means, for example, that a birth injury in the right side of the brain may lead to sensory or motor problems predominately (or exclusively) in the left side of the body. This might be found, for instance in a child with cerebral palsy or traumatic brain injury that is focal (isolated) in nature.
Contrecoup (see coup/contrecoup injuries)
Coprolalia
Recurrent, dysregulated utterances of obscenities (e.g., references to bodily functions, sexual acts) that are often repeated in a ritualistic way. These are important for school psychologists to recognize because they may occur among individuals with Tourette syndrome. They may be only rarely seen, however, outside of Tourette syndrome.
Corpus callosum
The large bands of myelinated fibers that connect the right and left cerebral hemispheres. School psychologists sometimes (rarely) encounter children whose corpus callosum has been severed to prevent seizures spreading from one hemisphere to the other hemisphere (this surgery is called a “commissurotomy”). It is now more common, however, to see children whose corpus callosum never developed (this is called “callosal agenesis”). Somewhat surprisingly, many of these latter group of children have no history of developmental or school problems. Rather, there colossal agenesis is discovered serendipitously when they receive a CT or MRI of the brain after a head injury. The often unremarkable presentation of these students seems confusing because many school psychologists know about the odd configuration of findings reported among adults who have undergone commissurotomy. These adults act as if they have two centers of independent cognitive and sensory functioning within a single skull. Children with callosal agenesis unrelated to an underlying syndrome, however, rarely present in this manner. This is likely because another set of myelinated fibers connecting the right and left hemispheres (called the “anterior commissure”) continues to convey information from one hemisphere to the other.
For more information see the following link from NIH: https://www.ninds.nih.gov/Disorders/All-Disorders/Agenesis-Corpus-Callosum-Information-Page
Coup/contrecoup injuries
These notions are sometimes important for school psychologists who might be assessing students with traumatic brain injury (TBI). The term “coup” derives from the French word for “blow” (in this case a blow to the head). Practically, “coup” refers to the site of the blow whereas contrecoup (meaning backlash) refers to the site opposite the blow. Coup injuries are easy to conceptualize and so are their prospective neuropsychological consequences. A blow to the front part of the head might predict anterior coup injuries sufficient to cause problems with executive functions. Contrecoup injuries arise when the brain rebounds from a blow and suffers an impact 180 degrees from the coup site. For example, an anterior coup injury (front of the head) may be associated with a posterior contrecoup injury (back of the head) sufficient to cause problems with sensory input and interpretation, such as with vision. Although the terms can be helpful in reading medical records, most pediatric neuropsychologists caution that strict predictions from sites of injury to neuropsychological (or functional) problems are imperfect. The potential relevance of these terms aside, many children with TBI present with diffuse, not focal, impairments.
Cramer’s V (see effect size)
Crystalized ability (see fluid and crystalized ability)
CT scan (see MRI)
Cue (see discriminative stimulus)
Curriculum based assessment and general outcome measures
Originally selected directly from students’ curriculum material (e.g., passages in their reading books), curriculum-based assessments (CBAs) involve criterion-referenced measurement of students’ skills (often on a repeated basis). CBAs were originally touted for their excellent content validity. Now, however, CBAs may consist of fixed, criterion-referenced academic probes that are not precisely related to any one student’s curriculum (i.e., they are general, not curriculum specific). Thus, technically, many CBAs are actually merely “general outcome measures,” criterion-referenced reading or math probes of graduated difficulty. Despite their lack of congruence with a student’s curriculum, these measures still may have value as screening tools and as repeatable measures to help judge students’ progress in basic academic skills.
Cursive (writing)
Penmanship characterized by flowing letters joined together. The cursive technique is generally taught after simple manuscript (printing). Cursive writing may have advantages of leading to faster and less effortful writing than use of manuscript printing.
Cymbalta® (see anti-depressant medications)
Cytomegalovirus (see TORCH)
Daily (behavior) report card
A tool that targets designated aspects of classroom behavior (e.g., compliance, work completion). A daily report card typically consists of one or several ratings completed by a classroom teacher during the school day. The card is sent home (or made available electronically) each day for parental inspection. Because young students, and those with ADHD, benefit from clear expectations and frequent feedback, daily behavior report cards can be of assistance. As part of a behavior plan, incentives may also be distributed.
The following form is one of many examples of daily behavioral report cards: http://www.pent.ca.gov/pos/cl/str/dailyreportcards.pdf
Daytrana® (see stimulants and other ADHD medications)
Declarative (explicit) memory
Refers to the memory system for retaining and retrieving episodes, facts, and explicit information. In contrast to the procedural memory system, the declarative memory system processes objective information and is accessible to conscious awareness. It is of obvious relevance for school psychologists because much of formal education concerns acquiring and retaining explicit knowledge.
Also, school psychologists often encounter students with neurological impairments, such as traumatic brain injury, for which there is risk of impairments in declarative memory. Such potential impairments can be assessed by standard psychometric techniques exemplified by those that require acquisition and consolidation of facts over time (e.g., list learning). It is often helpful to contrast the declarative memory system with the procedural memory system (habit-related, largely unconscious), which is supported by different brain structures. Depending on the nature of neurological impairment one memory system may be more affected than the other.
For more information, see the following link: http://www.livescience.com/43153-declarative-memory.html
Delusion
A strongly held belief that is false. Delusions often have an extraordinary character that reveals their implausibility (e.g., the belief that one’s thoughts are being stolen; the belief that one is a reincarnation of Christ). Delusions can represent a key symptom of psychosis.
Desyrel® (see anti-depressant medications)
Developmental delay (federal) definition
Children aged three through nine experiencing developmental delays. Child with a disability for children aged three through nine (or any subset of that age range, including ages three through five), may, subject to the conditions described in §300.111(b), include a child—
- Who is experiencing developmental delays, as defined by the State and as measured by appropriate diagnostic instruments and procedures, in one or more of the following areas:
-physical development
-cognitive development
-communication development
-social or emotional development
-or adaptive development; and
- Who, by reason thereof, needs special education and related services.
Developmental milestones
Concerns ages at which important tasks are mastered. The idea is that delayed mastery of early developmental tasks (delayed milestones) predict later cognitive and developmental problems. Although children with severe intellectual disability typically suffer conspicuously delayed mastery of developmental tasks, slight delays often prove inconsequential regarding later global development. The same is true regarding domain-specific delays (e.g., language, motor) and later problems in the same domain. For example, Flensborg-Madsen and Mortensen (2017) examined mastery in the following domains, each assessed with multiple items in a large (N = 821) Danish study:
- Language (e.g., forming 3-word sentences)
- Walking (e.g., climbing stairs unassisted)
- Eating (e.g., drinking from cup unassisted)
- Dressing (e.g., putting on socks)
- Social interaction (e.g., distinguishing boys from girls)
- Toilet training (e.g., remaining dry during night)
Most domains were correlated with adult IQ but the values were modest (e.g., language domain and full scale IQ = -.19; language domain and verbal IQ = -.20; social interaction and full scale IQ = -.14). A better sense of the impact of delayed mastery is reflected in actual IQ score differences; those mastering sentence formation before 24 months had mean adult full scale IQ values of 107.0, whereas those with later than 24-month mastery had 100.6. Note, however, that mean values for both those with and without early delays are solidly average. But IQ and other scores collected during the school years (rather than adulthood) would probably reveal stronger effects. The key for most school psychologists may be to recognize truly delayed mastery of developmental milestones and then to carefully consider this information as just a single prognostic factor among many. To assist, the table below provides critical values for delays for each item in the Flensborg-Madsen and Mortensen dataset. School psychologists might find this information useful while remembering the values derived from a foreign (Danish) study.
The following link from the CDC may prove more user friendly: https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/actearly/milestones/index.html.
Developmental milestones, means and z scores from one study |
|||
|
Milestone |
‡Mean |
z = +1 |
z = +2 |
| Turning head in right direction |
12.2 |
16.8 |
21.2 |
| Walking |
13.7 |
16.0 |
18.3 |
| Drinking from cup |
17.4 |
21.9 |
26.4 |
| Correctly naming objects or animals |
17.8 |
23.2 |
28.6 |
| Correctly naming pictured objects or animals |
19.9 |
25.3 |
30.7 |
| Eating using spoon |
19.9 |
24.9 |
29.9 |
| Playing with peers |
20.6 |
26.5 |
32.4 |
| Building tower |
20.7 |
26.4 |
32.1 |
| Climbing stairs |
21.0 |
26.2 |
31.4 |
| Forming sentence |
22.7 |
27.6 |
32.5 |
| Helping out at home |
24.2 |
29.9 |
35.6 |
| Picking things up |
24.4 |
28.1 |
33.8 |
| Control of bowels |
24.7 |
30.7 |
36.7 |
| Remains dry during day |
25.4 |
31.4 |
37.4 |
| Remains dry during night |
26.3 |
32.8 |
39.3 |
| Distinguishing boys from girls |
26.7 |
32.4 |
38.1 |
| Sharing experiences |
28.6 |
33.1 |
37.6 |
| Speaking properly |
28.8 |
34.2 |
39.6 |
| Donning socks |
29.2 |
34.7 |
40.2 |
| Buttoning |
30.0 |
35.2 |
40.4 |
| ‡Age in months. Adapted from Flensborg-Madsen & Mortensen (2017) | |||
Developmental pediatrics, developmental pediatrician
Developmental pediatricians are physicians (MD, DO) who are first train in pediatrics and then afforded additional training concerning learning and developmental problems. This means that most developmental pediatricians possess some knowledge of psychology, psychiatry, neurology, and genetics. For school psychologists it is helpful to know that some developmental pediatricians include learning disabilities and dyslexia as part of their practices, although extensive use of psychometric tools seems to be rare regarding learning problems. Knowledge of IDEA and familiarity with school practices vary. More common is an emphasis on ADHD, autism, and enuresis or encopresis. Because of their background in pediatrics, developmental pediatricians are commonly referred children by primary care physicians.
Developmental regression
This refers to loss of previously attained developmental milestones. Rare in the general population, this phenomenon is not so uncommon among children with certain conditions that are routinely seen by school psychologists. For example, one study found that 36% of children with autism spectrum disorder had lost skills over time, most notably social and communication abilities (Gadow, Perlman & Weber, 2017). Obviously, any child who has experienced a developmental regression should be seen by a physician, often starting with the primary care physician.
Dexedrine® (see stimulants and other ADHD medications)
Diabetes
Diabetes is a disorder of blood sugar (glucose). In most cases of type 1 diabetes (also called type 1 diabetes mellitus), which is often diagnosed during childhood, insulin-producing cells in the pancreas are destroyed. Without insulin, sugar and other substances present in the blood stream are unable to be metabolized. This means that cells risk being starved of energy and unsafe levels of blood sugar can result. Diabetic crises are possible during which seizures, coma, and even death can result without prompt action. Management of diabetes, and prevention of crises, involves providing exogenous insulin (via injection) and adherence to a controlled diet. This works imperfectly, however. Consequently, children’s bodies, including their brains, are at recurrent risk of insufficient access to sugar.
As one might suspect, unstable blood sugars can cause problems at school, such as with attention and classroom productivity. This possibility appears to be associated with mild academic risks generally but specifically with alterations in attention as sugar levels change. For example, Parent, Wodrich and Hasan (2009) found blood sugar stability correlated with classroom attention (r = .53). Moreover, an intervention that stabilized blood sugar was associated with improved classroom attention in a small, but tightly controlled, study conducted within classrooms (Daley, Wodrich, & Hasan, 2006).
Broader lifestyle and personal adjustment considerations also exist for students with type 1 diabetes. This is in part because of dietary restrictions, the need for ongoing monitoring of blood sugar levels, and the burden of repeated insulin injections. Such students may require supports and accommodations. Some students need an IEP (in the Other Health Impairment category) or a Section 504 accommodation plan.
Type 2 diabetes also involves insufficient blood sugar in the cells, although this occurs without destruction of insulin-producing cells in the pancreas. Type 2 diabetes is strongly associated with obesity. These children, too, can suffer learning and adjustment problems. Not surprisingly, children with both types of diabetes may miss an inordinate amount of school and may require time out of class at the nurse’s office.
A summary of the literature on diabetes and school is provided by Wodrich, Hasan and Parent (2011). Additional information about diabetes specifically tailored to teachers is available on the following website from the University of Arizona: https://edmedkids.arizona.edu.
The following National Institute of Health diabetes link provides information for school personnel:
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-5th edition (DSM-5)
DSM-5 is the most recent iteration of the standard comprehensive catalogue of mental (psychiatric) disorders. It is vast in scope and extensive in detail, including descriptions and diagnostic criteria for virtually all recognized mental health, as well as some developmental, conditions. Although less commonly used in schools than in clinics, DSM-5 nonetheless is arguably an important resource for understanding children as well as for codifying a single diagnostic system applicable across settings (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
Diagnostic interview procedures
This refers to various scripted interviews that systematically check symptoms (and associated impairments) related to an array of mental health disorders. Structured diagnostic interview techniques are frequently seen in the empirical literature concerning child psychopathology. Most require special training and are time consuming (see table below). Consequently, when school psychologists conduct clinical interviews, they are typically less structured, and they often address the nature of the student’s circumstances and/or referral concern, not just fixed symptoms. Nonetheless, some diagnostic experts argue that without use of structured diagnostic interviews many important childhood disorders escape detection, thus depriving youth of needed treatment (Youngstrom & Van Meter, 2016).
|
Selected Diagnostic Interviews
|
|||
| Title | Focus | Duration | Special training |
| Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia, School-age Children (K-SADS) | DSM | 1 hour + | Yes |
| Diagnostic Interview for Children and Adolescents (DICA) | DSM | 1 hour to 1.5 hours | Yes |
| Child Assessment Schedule (CAS) | Content areas and DSM | 1 hour or less | No |
| Mini-International Neuropsychiatric Interview for Children and Adolescents (MINI-KIDS) | Specific diagnoses and diagnostic groupings | As little as 15 minutes | Yes |
Diagnostic utility statistics
These represent an important set of statistics that help school psychologists understand the validity of test scores in making categorical decisions. The four to consider specifically are: sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value (PPV), and negative predictive value (NPV). All of these concern evidence of correct classification of individuals with scores above a fixed cut-point (positive test results) and below a fixed cut-point (negative test results).
- Sensitivity: the ability of a test to correctly classify those with a particular condition (0 to 100%).
- Specificity: the ability of a test to correctly classify those who lack a particular condition (0 to 100%).
- Positive predictive value: the likelihood that a positive test score (one above a cut-point) indicates the presence of a particular condition.
- Negative predictive value: the likelihood that a negative test score (one below a cut-point) indicates the absence of a particular condition.
These terms can prove confusing, at least at first. Most school psychologists need to read further. Sensitivity and specificity can be combined to create diagnostic likelihood ratios, which are an effect size indicator regarding categorical decision. Also of note, diagnostic utility statistics facilitate the use of Bayesian approaches to assessment as well as permit the use of probability nomograms.
The following link provide detailed information:
Dimensional
When used in the context of psychological assessment, refers to placing individuals on a continuum, often via use of standardized assessment tools. For example, IQ tests scores can be used to characterize students via a system with scores ranging across a vast continuum from the 40s to 140s. The dimensional approach is often contrasted with the categorical approach, where students are placed into discrete categories. For example, IQ tests could be used to help place students into categories such as those with intellectual disability or those with giftedness (see separate entry for the dimensional approach).
Direct instruction
An important concept for school psychologists because many failing students appear to benefit from carefully targeted practice of basic skills (e.g., reading, math). For example, struggling students seem to do best with instruction that maximizes engagement time and allows teachers control over the details of instruction, which are scripted for step-by-step delivery. Frequent, overt student responses are another hallmark of direct instruction. Research suggests that in reading students with SLD perform almost one standard deviation better than control students when their intervention emphasizes direct instruction (Adams & Engelmann, 1996). Not surprisingly, in many special education settings direct instruction is the workhorse. Still, less structured “discovery-oriented” methods arguably train students-in-general to learn problem solving and deeper understanding that would be impossible if only direct instruction were used. Thus, in the general curriculum (e.g., in science), one might encounter teachers using both direct instruction and discovery methods. Research implies that context and the precise goals of instruction, among other factors, should help determine the instructional approach adopted in each situation (Chase & Klahr, 2017; Rider, Burton & Silberg, 2006).
Note: There is a national organization and an accompanying website devoted to this topic: National Institute for Direction Instruction, https://www.nifdi.org.
Discipline referral
Mechanism used in schools for teachers to refer a student for disciplinary action. In generally, a designated school administrator receives or processes a discipline referral and selects among an array of potential actions (e.g., lunch detention, in-school suspension, parent conference). A tangible form (i.e., a discipline referral form) is routinely completed for each such referral. School psychologists often examine a student’s history of discipline referrals when they review background information as part of an evaluation. It is also interesting that the number of discipline referral over time are now commonly used in educational research, such to determine the impact of PBIS on a school’s overall level of discipline problems.
Discriminative stimulus
A term from applied behavior analysis that refers to a type of stimulus (i.e., sign, situation in the environment) that signals certain operant behavior(s) are now likely to be reinforced. For example, the presence of a classmate’s welcoming smile might signal that approach is likely to be socially reinforced. In contrast, a different facial expression may indicate no such chance for success (no reinforcement). Humans learn to discriminate between the two situations (and countless others) to guide their behavior. School psychologists can examine the role of discriminative stimuli related to the behavior they want to increase or decrease. A discriminative stimulus may also be referred to as a “cue.”
Dolch 220 list (see sight vocabulary)
Double-deficit hypothesis
The hypothesis that asserts dyslexia arises from a combination of deficits in phonological processing and speeded naming, rather than either alone (see, for example, Katzir, Kim, Wolf, Morris, & Lovett, 2008).
Down syndrome
Down syndrome is one of the most common genetic causes of intellectual disability. The majority of children with Down syndrome possess an extra chromosome #21 (this is an instance of aneuploidy [too many or two few chromosomes]). A minority of children have translocation of genetic material on chromosome #21. Routine psychological assessment of IQ, adaptive, academic and social/emotional assessment is generally called for. Intellectual disability is the rule. Because advancing maternal age is associated with heightened risk of Down syndrome and because a disproportionate risk for Down syndrome exists in subsequent pregnancies regardless of mother’s age, many families with an affected child seek genetic counseling regarding subsequent pregnancies. Co-existing medical problems (e.g., cardiac defects) are common, as are facial and body characteristics.
Two other facts are important for school psychologists. First, some children have a variation of Down syndrome characterized by mosaicism. This means that rather than all the individual’s cells containing an extra #21 chromosome, some cells do whereas other cells do not (i.e., there are 47 chromosomes in some cells but the normal 46 in others). Individuals with the mosaicism variant of Down syndrome typically have fewer health problems and milder cognitive impairment. Second, Down syndrome may have a less stable cognitive and adaptive trajectory than other conditions causing intellectual disability. Specifically, early IQ and adaptive scores, which are often mild, may give way to relatively lower scores after age six years. Thus, repeated evaluation is often indicated.
More information is available at the NIH website and the National Down Syndrome Society: www.nichd.nih.gov/news/resources/spotlight/Pages/120814-DS-research-plan.aspx. Other facts can be found on the website from the National Down Syndrome Society: http://www.ndss.org/.
Duty to warn (see Tarasoff v. California Board of Regents)
Dyscalculia
Dyscalculia refers to a specific learning disorder in mathematics. Like dyslexia and dysgraphia (indeed all “neurodevelopmental disorders”), dyscalculia likely arises from diverse underlying causes. One well-studied possibility concerns deficits in representing “numerosities” (i.e., the number of objects in a set). It is hypothesized that this root problem sets in motion various related problems such as marked difficulty working with numerical values and associating these values with symbols. Some researchers have even equated deficient numerosity underlying dyscalculia to phonological deficits underlying many cases of dyslexia (Butterworth, Varma & Laurillard, 2011). Like dyslexia, however, dyscalculia likely reflects various underlying processing problems.
The National Institutes of Child Health and Human Development lists various possible expressions of dyscalculia:
- Problems understanding basic arithmetic concepts (e.g., fractions, number lines)
- Difficulty with math-related word problems
- Trouble making change in cash transactions
- Messiness in putting math problems down on paper
- Trouble recognizing logical information sequences (e.g., steps in math problems)
- Trouble understanding the time sequence of events
- Difficulty with verbally describing math processes
For most school psychologists, however, the standard steps followed in a psychoeducational evaluation and eligibility determination for a specific learning disability also apply in prospective cases of prospective dyscalculia. In their psychoeducational reports, school psychologists may refer to these students as expressing specific learning disabilities in mathematical reasoning or mathematical calculation.
Also see the following link from NICHD: https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/learning/conditioninfo/symptoms#dyscalculia
Dysgraphia (also see graphomotor)
This concerns extreme and persistent problems with the production of written work. Students with severe graphomotor problems that fail to respond to instruction may be said to have dysgraphia. According to the National Institute of Child Health and Development the following might also be observe among students with dysgraphia:
- Strong dislike of writing or drawing
- Grammatical problems evident in writing
- Struggles getting ideas down on paper
- Fatigue when writing
- Written narratives that lack a logical sequence
- Pronouncing words aloud (or subvocally) to assist in writing
- Written work that includes partially finished words or entirely missing words
Also see the following link from NICHD: https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/learning/conditioninfo/symptoms#dyscalculia
Dyslexia
According to the International Dyslexia Association, “dyslexia is a specific learning disability that is neurobiological in origin. It is characterized by difficulties with accurate and/or fluent word recognition and by poor spelling and decoding abilities. These difficulties typically result from a deficit in the phonological component of language that is often unexpected in relation to other cognitive abilities and the provision of effective classroom instruction. Secondary consequences may include problems in reading comprehension and reduced reading experience that can impede growth of vocabulary and background knowledge.”
See additional information at the following link from the International Dyslexia Association: https://dyslexiaida.org/definition-of-dyslexia/.
Also see the following link from NICHD also pro: https://www.nichd.nih.gov/health/topics/learning/conditioninfo/symptoms#dyscalculia
Although school-based teams (especially their school psychology members) are not generally charged with detecting dyslexia per se, the concept, nonetheless, may still prove important in schools. This is because there is a vast empirical research base concerning dyslexia’s causes, manifestations, and treatments. What’s more, “dyslexia” is included specifically in the federal (IDEA) definition of specific learning disability (see entry for specific learning disability). In addition, dyslexia is described in DSM-5 as an alternative term for a specific learning disorder in reading (see DSM-5 page 67). Finally, the U.S. Department of Education (2015) clarified that schools’ use of term is not contraindicated “OSERS reiterates that there is nothing in the IDEA or our implementing regulations that would prohibit IEP teams from referencing or using dyslexia, dyscalculia, or dysgraphia in a child’s IEP.”
The following is a link to the 2015 letter from the U.S. Department of Education: https://www2.ed.gov/policy/speced/guid/idea/memosdcltrs/guidance-on-dyslexia-10-2015.pdf
