3 E – F

Echolalia

This refers to a tendency to repeat the last thing heard (i.e., words, phrases), generally done in an odd and socially inappropriate manner. Echolalia is important for school psychologists to recognize because it sometimes occurs among individuals with autism but rarely among those without autism.

Ecological validity

Validity, the extent to which a test measures what it purports to measure, is sometimes problematic for the psychometric tests and standardized behavior rating scales used in schools. Ecological validity concerns validity derived from the context (setting) where test scores are actually to be applied. For example, a test of reading comprehension administered in a quite environment where a student’s motivation can be optimized and where there are no distractions may possess satisfactory classical validity. But its ecological validity regarding classroom reading success may prove far weaker. For example, some students who score well on a one-on-one reading test may be poor classroom readers and vice versa. The ecology of the school classroom introduces otherwise-missing elements that threaten straight-forward indexes of test validity. Thus, to enhance the ecological validity of school-related assessments, school psychologists often use classroom observations or work products, not just psychometric test scores. Because these derive from the classroom environment itself, they are said to possess relatively better ecological validity.

EEG (electroencephalogram)

EEG is a diagnostic test used by physicians (mostly neurologists) for diagnostic purposes, especially establishing the presence of epilepsy. The procedure involves placing small metal disks (electrodes) on the scalp. This permits examination of electrical brain activity, especially abnormal “tracings” that indicate epilepsy. Although EEG is used for research regarding learning and psychiatric problems, its use for clinical diagnosis regarding these conditions is rare and controversial.

Neurofeedback is a biofeedback procedure that uses EEG technology. The logic is that if brain waves associated with attentive states could be increased with biofeedback, then ADHD symptoms might be reduced. Therapeutic use of neurofeedback, however, generally involves relatively few electrodes compared to the procedures used by neurologists for epilepsy diagnosis. Some practitioners of neurofeedback may also lack extensive training in EEG technology. A meta-analysis offered the following conclusion: “evidence from well-controlled trials with probably blinded outcomes currently fails to support neurofeedback as an effective treatment for ADHD.” (Cortese et al., 2016, p. 444).

Effect size (also see significance)

Effect size concerns one of several statistical terms describing the magnitude of association between research variables (or differences between experimental and control groups). In practice, school psychologists benefit by considering effect size indicators plus indicators of statistical significance when they read research findings. Statistical significance merely concerns whether patterns are due to chance, whereas effect size concerns magnitude. Thus, effect size statistics help school psychologists judge whether differences might actually matter. The table below is a summary of commonly used effect size indicators.

Effective/efficacious

These terms have similar but distinctive meanings. An intervention is “effective” to the extent that it works, or provides benefit, in the real world. In contrast, an intervention is “efficacious” if it engenders results under optimum circumstances, such as in a carefully controlled clinical trial (Gartlehner et al., 2006). Obviously, the former is a much more stringent standard than the latter. Regarding educational research, some interventions prove efficacious (e.g., a reading program offered in optimum settings delivered by expert teachers) but not very effective (e.g., if applied in sub-optimal settings by rank-and-file teachers). As might be expected, relatively little educational research addresses the actual effectiveness of interventions.

Effexor® (see anti-depressant medications)

Elavil® (see anti-depressant medications)

Elision

This term concerns omission or change in a word or part of a word, which in psychometric testing is often used to assess phonological processing. For example, a task might require a child to first say the word “table” then to repeat the word leaving out the “t” sound (i.e., the correct response would be to say “able”). Subtests using this principle are now common among tests of phonological processing and reading (e.g., Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing, Wagner, Torgeson, Rashotte & Pearson, 2013; Kaufman Test of Educational Achievement-3, Kaufman & Kaufman, 2014).

Emotional disability (federal) definition

The federal definition, as found in IDEA, follows:

“One or more of the following characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s educational performance:

1. An inability to learn which cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health factors
2. An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and teachers
3. Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances
4. A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression
5. A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school problems

Emotional disability includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have a serious emotional disability.”

Also see the following link: https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.8/c.

Encopresis

Encopresis refers to an inability to exert voluntary control over fecal discharge. This may also be referred to as lack of “bowel control,” “fecal incontinence,” or “soiling accidents.” Of course, bowel control, like bladder control, is a developmental task. Recurrent daytime or nighttime accidents in children older than four years usually suggests a problem requiring professional attention. Consequently, it is important for school psychologists to encourage appropriate medical consultation as a first step in understanding and helping such children. Among medical explanations are fecal hoarding that in turn permits fecal seepage or diminished sensitivity to sensory cues from the bowel, lack of proper innervation of the bowel, or a systemic medical illness. Psychological elements may also be part of the cause (e.g., fear associated with using the toilet). For some children, there is no obvious explanation. Obviously, social stigma, teasing, and bullying are a risk for affected children. School psychologists may offer support for the student and family and they may assist in devising behavioral plans.

See the following link from the American Academy of Pediatrics for more details: https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/emotional-problems/Pages/Soiling-Encopresis.aspx.

Also see DSM-5, page 357.

Endrew F. v. Douglas County School District

This references a legal case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court concerning a student with autism. Parents contended that the student’s IEP was insufficient to provide him with a Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE), as required by law. A move to a private facility and change in the array of services seemed to prompt improvements in functioning, perhaps suggesting the prior plan was indeed insufficient. The Court’s decision, which is complex, determined that IEPs must be “reasonably calculated to enable a child to make progress appropriate in light of the child’s circumstances.” This seems to represent a higher standard for FAPE than existed previously, which has obvious implications for all of those making decisions about students’ special service needs (see O’Brien, 2018).

The following link from Cornell University provides details https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/cert/15-827

English Language Learner (ELL)

ELL denotes students whose primary language is not English. Beyond primary Spanish-speaking students whose participation in U.S. schools is obvious, many students from other linguistic backgrounds (e.g., Asian, Pacific-island, Native American) are also enrolled here. In fact, national data indicates that 27% of kindergarteners come from immigrant families (Sullivan, Houri, & Sadeh, 2016). Especially relevant to school psychologists are the risk for these students to struggle academically and to be subject to social exclusion or discrimination. Thus, system-level practices that help assure all students are supported as they learn English arguably make sense. For example, the transition for non-English speaker to an academically-proficient English speaker may be underestimated by a teacher who misinterprets apparent fluency after a fairly brief interval of immersion. Teachers and administrators may similarly misestimate an ELL student’s ability to succeed in routinely-taught academics, setting the stage for confusion and unreasonable educational practices, such as in reading (Albers & Hoffman, 2012).

Potentially more relevant to school psychologists is the obligation to conduct fair evaluations when special services might be considered. Small-scale research scrutinizing actual psychoeducational reports, for example, concluded that school psychologists often fail to comply with professional or legal standards (e.g., determination of primary language, ascertainment of acculturation information), when evaluating ELLs (Harris, Sullivan, Oades-Sese & Sotelo-Dynega, 2015).

The following link comes from the New Jersey Department of Education and concerns evaluation of ELLs: http://www.state.nj.us/education/bilingual/news/FAQse.htm. General resources for teachers is also available at the following link: http://www.ncte.org/library/NCTEFiles/Resources/PolicyResearch/ELLResearchBrief.pdf

Enuresis

Enuresis refers to an inability to exert voluntary control over urinary discharge. It may also be referred to as lack of “bladder control” or “bladder incontinence.” Two variations are important for school psychologists to recognize, although they sometimes co-exist: (1.) nocturnal (nighttime) enuresis and (2.) diurnal (daytime) enuresis. The former is much more common and appears to be related largely to maturation in sleep architecture (especially sleeping so deeply that cues to urinate go undetected). With advancing age, fewer and fewer children suffer from nocturnal enuresis. The second may arise from a host of medical problems (e.g., defects in the muscles of the urinary system, diabetes) or behavioral considerations (e.g., severe inattention to internal cues, acute anxiety episodes). For many children with diurnal enuresis, there is no obvious explanation. As with nocturnal enuresis, fewer and fewer children with daytime enuresis remain affected as they grow older. Among school-age children, it is important for school psychologists to encourage appropriate medical consultation and, potentially, offer psychological/behavioral assistance. This is especially true because left unresolved, enuresis may engender social ostracism or bullying or restrict social options (e.g., limit sleepovers or camping trips).

See the following link from the American Academy of Pediatrics for more details: https://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-issues/conditions/genitourinary-tract/Pages/Nocturnal-Enuresis-in-Teens.aspx. Also see DSM-5, page 357.

Epilepsy

Epilepsy is defined as recurrent, unprovoked seizures. Typically, seizure episodes have been witnessed by caregivers or teachers and subsequently confirmed by an electroencephalogram (EEG) as interpreted by a neurologist. This is an extremely heterogeneous disorder. For example, some students experience focal seizures (in part of the brain only), whereas others have seizures impacting the entire brain. In some ways, the site of a focal seizure focus may predict the kinds of learning problems school psychologists find during evaluation. That is, students with foci in the right hemisphere have, on average, greater problems with spatial and nonverbal tasks, whereas those with foci in the left hemisphere predict relative linguistic-related deficits (Kibby, Cohen, Lee, Stanford, Park & Strickland, 2014). Some students with epilepsy experience transient sensory or motor phenomenon that are barely noticed, whereas others suffer generalized tonic-clonic episodes with loss of consciousness and dramatic symptomology that often proves disturbing to classmates and teachers.

As a group, students with epilepsy encounter elevated rates of learning problems that vary in intensity, associated cognitive and academic aspects, and social stigma. Favorably, many students are seizure-free based on the use of one or more antiepileptic drugs. These drugs, however, sometimes produce lethargy, especially if more than one drug is needed. For students with “epilepsy only” (idiopathic), problems are generally markedly less severe than for their counterparts with symptomatic epilepsy (epilepsy as part of a broader underlying brain disorder). For example, Wodrich, Kaplan, and Deering (2006) found that the risk of intellectual disability was about five times higher, and the risk of speech language problems three times higher, in the latter than in the former group.  Students with symptomatic epilepsy might include, for example, those with tuberous sclerosis complex or those with recurrent seizures after a traumatic brain injury. Some students with epilepsy qualify for Other Health Impairment services, although research is not clear regarding the extent to which this occurs.

Because teachers and classmates are often anxious when a student with epilepsy enrolls, school psychologist and nurses can sometimes provide valuable support services. Research shows that teachers often lack even basic information about the educational consequences of childhood epilepsy (e.g., fewer than 10% knew that epilepsy imposes a risk of attention problems, or depressive feelings, or threatens classroom learning; Wodrich, Jarrar, Buchholder, Levy & Gay, 2011). School psychologists might help by documenting any cognitive, memory or attention problems as well as assisting in formulating needed supports and interventions.

The following website provides epilepsy-related information specific to educators. https://www.aesnet.org/. Also see the following site from the University of Arizona that is devised for teachers: www.edmedkids.arizona.edu

EPPP (see Association of State and Provincial Psychology Boards)

Eta squared (see effect size)

Ethics codes (see National Association of School Psychologists; see American Psychological Association)

Ethnic incongruence

This term denotes a situation in which a student (or his/her parents) are members of one group but the school psychologist is a member of another group (Loe & Miranda, 2005). The presence of bias or stereotyping might be a risk associated with this situation.

Etiology

This is a term originally used only in medicine but increasingly applied in psychology to refer to the cause of a disorder. For example, the etiology of schizophrenia is largely genetic, with additional environmental factors causing the expression of symptoms. Similarly, the etiology of Down syndrome is a chromosome anomaly.

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA)

ESSA is a comprehensive federal education law signed by President Obama in 2015, making it the successor of the No Child Left Behind Act. Highlights include:

• critical protections for America’s disadvantaged and high-need students
• proviso that all students will be prepared to succeed in college and careers
• collection and dissemination of results from annual statewide assessments
• support for local innovations, including innovations that are evidence-based and those that are place-based
• expanded support for high-quality preschools
• accountability and action for the lowest-performing schools

The following link from the U.S. Department of Education provides details: https://www.ed.gov/ESSA

Examiner drift

Once fully mastered test administration skills (e.g., faithful administration of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-5) are subject to deterioration over time—this is sometimes referred to as examiner drift. Examiner drift appears to be a genuine risk in school psychology practice with potentially important consequences (e.g., invalid scores from test administration). Solutions might include overlearning of administration and scoring, video-recording and immediate self-appraisal, as well as deliberate practice that includes review by a peer (Antoniuk & Cormier, 2020). Some school districts appear to require routine observation and inter-examiner reliability checks for certain assessment procedures as a way to preclude examiner drift.

Executive function (EF)

EF refers to a set of hypothetical functions generally believed to be supported by the frontal lobes. EFs are held to orchestrate the initiation, sequencing, and cessation of lower-level cognitive skills so that humans can perform various tasks. Consequently, EF abilities include planning, working memory, set shifting, evaluation, and judgment. It is clear that some individuals with frontal lobe lesions suffer profound deficits regarding these skills. However, EF currently is invoked more frequently regarding developmental than acquired problems, specifically ADHD. ADHD authority Russell Barkley hypothesizes that failures of inhibition preclude students with ADHD from developing effective executive skills (Barkley, 2015). Without properly developed EFs, children with ADHD express the array of academic, interpersonal, and social-emotional difficulties that characterize ADHD.

Psychometric instruments and rating scales purporting to test EF are now abundant, although the extent to which these work in clinical practice is not entirely clear. This may be due to an overlap of EF with general cognitive ability on the one hand and with working memory and attention on the other hand. Moreover, many of the executive problems that may plague students are related to emotional regulation and control of affect (so called “hot executive function”), whereas psychometric techniques often concern only planning, cognitive flexibility, and impulse control (so called “cold executive function”). The extent to which EF is malleable is not entirely known. What’s more, there are questions about whether training in EF generalizes to real life.

Explicit memory (see declarative memory)

Externalizing psychopathology (see internalizing-externalizing psychopathology)

Extinction burst

This idea from applied behavior analysis concerns a burst in responding that occurs when previously reinforced behavior is no longer reinforced. In general, extinction can be favorable if used to eliminate bad habits (e.g., leaving one’s seat without permission) or unfavorable if desirable habits disappear (e.g., starting seatwork immediately when directed to do so). But one of the greatest problems with using extinction is failure to appreciate the phenomenon of extinction burst, described below.

Extinction burst is a temporary, dramatic surge in behavior when extinction is implemented. Not only might such behavior increase but in may become more intense (dramatic) or change in character. If extinction is allowed to proceed, the burst is temporary and substantial reduction and eventual elimination of the behavior follow. This is important for school psychologists because teachers or parents may attempt to reduce unwanted behavior by stopping reinforcement only to find the behavior soon worsens. For example, a second grade boy who makes silly comments (ostensibly for attention) is ignored by teachers and classmates in a simple behavior plan. Consistent with the notion of extinction burst, however, the teacher soon discovers that the boy now makes even more frequent comments. Typically, these comments are now even sillier and louder than before the behavior plan was started. School psychologists can help teachers understand the nature of extinction and assist them in devising an effective plan. Often a functional behavior analysis (FBA) is needed.

Factitious disorder

This refers to made up, contrived, or falsified signs or symptoms associated with an illness or injury. Classically, this involves physical illnesses or psychiatric conditions of adults misrepresenting themselves to secure the attention of health care providers. For school psychologists, however, the symptoms may be created about another person, specifically a parent or guardian who falsifies symptoms of his/her child. Technically these later instances are now known as “Factitious Disorder Imposed on Another.” This same phenomenon is also sometimes referred to in medical settings as Munchausen by Proxy, a term that school psychologists may hear occasionally when speaking with a physician or when reading a medical record. School psychologists recognize that parents sometimes fabricate, or exaggerate, symptoms and/or their severity for diverse reasons. Regarding special education services, particular vigilance seems to be warranted, as address by Frye and Feldman (2012). Also see DSM-5, page 324.

False negative (see diagnostic utility statistics)

False positive (see diagnostic utility statistics)

Fanapt (see anti-psychotic medications)

FBA (see functional behavior analysis)

Fecal incontinence (see encopresis)

FERPA-Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act

FERPA is a federal law, applicable in schools, to protect the privacy of students’ records. Among its key provisions are parents’ (or adult students’) right to review records, to request correction of inaccurate records, and (in general) to have records released only on condition of their permission.

For more details, see the following link from the U.S. Department of Education: https://www2.ed.gov/policy/gen/guid/fpco/ferpa/index.html

Fetzima® (see anti-depressant medications)

Fluency

The notion of fluency relates to efficiency or speed, especially on psychometric tasks where both timed and untimed alternatives exist. For example, a test (or subtest) of “math computation” might consist of addition and subtraction problems for which students work without time limits. In contrast, a measure of “math fluency” might consist of addition and subtraction problems for which students complete as many problems as possible within 60 seconds. On the latter measure, students’ scores would equal the number of correct responses within the time limit. Obviously, some students possess academic skills but cannot (or will not) work quickly. Fluency measures help reveal and quantify such findings.

Fluid and crystallized ability

Consistent with the long-influential Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) model (Horn & Cattell, 1967), this represents an important distinction between two related expressions of cognitive ability. Fluid ability concerns reasoning and problems solving relatively independent of cultural differences and prior experiences. Many of the tasks that measure fluid ability are non-verbal in nature and tap novel learning.  In contrast, crystallized ability is conceived as more related to experience, including experience associated with various cultural and classroom exposures. Measures of vocabulary and general knowledge, for example, are often viewed as related to crystallized ability.

Flynn effect

The Flynn effect is an important research finding named after New Zealander James Flynn (2012). It refers to increases in IQ that have systematically occurred over many decades across many countries (especially industrialized nations). To be clear, the effect is expressed in raw score gains. This fact necessitates that IQ tests undergo routine re-norming, as out-of-date norms systematically result in inflated derived scores (e.g., IQ, percentile). For example, an IQ test normed 10 years ago might result in an entire population scoring 3 points higher on full scale IQ (e.g., mean IQ becomes 103) than would have been true a decade earlier. Of course, relatively higher IQ scores in clinical practice might influence identification of students with intellectual disability and giftedness. More subtly, it might affect consideration of students nearer the middle of the distribution when issues like specific learning disability determination are made.

School psychologists might find it interesting that gains appear more obvious on indicators of fluid reasoning than on experience-tied crystallized ability. This somewhat counter-intuitive finding, among related topics, was addressed in an edited book by Ulric Neisser (1998), which remains relevant despite its dated nature. Among Flynn’s own writing, his 2012 book might be of interest to readers.

Focalin® (see stimulants and ADHD medications)

Forest Grove School District v. T.A.

A potentially important legal case decided by the U.S. Supreme Court ostensibly concerning special education placement in private settings. The Court found that T.A.’s parents could be reimbursed for private school tuition after they unilaterally move their struggling child to a private setting. This was true even though T.A. had never received special services or been identified as a special needs student in his home school district. He had, however, received a school-based psychoeducational evaluation before his parents took him for a private, extra-school evaluation.

The Court’s findings suggest that schools are obliged to conduct comprehensive evaluations sensitive to all, not just one or two, areas of disability, as called for in IDEA’s Child Find requirement. It is also argued that psychological processes like executive function, memory, and attention ought to be routinely assessed (Dixon, Eusebio, Turton, Wright & Hale, 2011). Just what practice implications exist for school psychologists from this case, however, are subject to debate. Some authors contend that the Court’s finding may not actually be so far reaching as to require routine use of cognitive and neuropsychological tools during special education evaluations (Zirkel, 2013).

The following link from Cornell University provides details:

https://www.law.cornell.edu/supct/html/08-305.ZS.html 

Fragile X syndrome

Fragile X syndrome is important for school psychologists to understand because it is associated with intellectual disability and autism (Klusek, Martin, & Losh, 2014). Fragile X syndrome is a genetic disorder. To understand it, school psychologists need to consider some of its underlying genetic aspects.

First, fragile X is a disorder of one of the sex chromosomes, specifically an X chromosome, inherited from a parent. In order for signs and symptoms of fragile X to appear, a child must possess a mutation (in this case, a repetition of elements within a exact section of DNA). Specifically, the letters CGA are repeated too many times in fragile X syndrome. A very large number of excessive repetitions results in a “full mutation,” whereas a subthreshold number of repetitions results in a so called “pre-mutation.”  As might be suspected, full mutations are apt to cause more pronounced physical and psychological problems, which are listed below.

Second, females with a chromosome containing a fragile X mutation (or pre-mutation) are typically less affected than males because they have two X chromosomes. This has led some to characterize females with the fragile X mutation (or pre-mutation) as mere “carriers.” However, research suggests that they too encounter elevated risk for a host of physical and psychological problems.

Third, the occurrence of fragile X can be understood using basic principles of Mendelian inheritance. Specifically, mothers who possess a fragile X mutation (or pre-mutation) have a 50% chance of passing it to each offspring. If it is passed to a male, he typically expresses the full array of physical and psychological features. Again, females who inherit a mutation (pre-mutation) are less affected. Similarly, 50% of offspring from affected mothers do not inherit her fragile X. Although many adult males with fragile X do not reproduce, each can potentially pass a fragile X gene to a daughter. Because sons inherent only the Y chromosome from their father, there is no father-to-son fragile X inheritance risk.

Fourth, fragile X syndrome exemplifies the broader genetic principle referred to as “anticipation.” This means that DNA repetitions (e.g., CGA) are often unstable and repetitions may grow in size during subsequent generations. Thus, if there is a fragile X pre-mutation in one generation, it may appear as a full mutation in subsequent generations. This means that across generations, conditions like fragile X might appear earlier and with more severe symptoms.

For more information, see the following links from the National Institutes of Health: https://rarediseases.info.nih.gov/diseases/6464/fragile-x-syndrome

Also see: Our Fragile World: www.ourfragilexworld.org/

Free appropriate public education (FAPE)

FAPE is one of the key legal guarantees for students with disabilities. The provision applies to students with special education designations (i.e., under IDEA) as well as those receiving Section 504 protection.

For more information, see the following link from the U.S. Department of Education:https://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/edlite-FAPE504.html

Functional behavior analysis (FBA)

A specialized technique that is subsumed under the broader notion of applied behavior analysis.  It involves discerning the purposes or functions of a student’s unwanted behavior. FBAs require structured observation, interview, and data analysis. Once data are collected, it often becomes possible to look beyond the overt behavior itself and determine the underlying motivation of a student’s actions. In turn, this can permit locating viable positive reinforcers to be capitalized upon (or negative reinforcers to be managed), thus enabling effective behavior intervention plans.

The following link from Vanderbilt University may be helpful:

https://iris.peabody.vanderbilt.edu/module/fba/

Fundamental attribution error (FAE)

FAE is a common cognitive distortion. It involves the human tendency to attribute others’ actions to internal characteristics rather than situational factors (Hooper, Erdogan, Keen, Lawton & McHugh, 2015). For example, a student with recurrent fights on the playground is apt to be characterized as aggressive, whereas in reality he may be responding to situational factors such as bullying by a peer or frustration arising from classroom failure. FAE suggests that school psychologists should be particularly careful to consider context variables in their assessment of students (also see idiographic approach).