9 Q – R
Qelbree® (see stimulants and other ADHD medications)
R2 (see effect size)
Rapid automatized naming (RAN)
RAN refers to a variety of tasks, all of which require a respondent to name objects or symbols as rapidly as possible. RAN procedures are frequently used in research and in school-based practice for their ability to predict skill acquisition in reading. Because some struggling readers express problems with automaticity and speed (but perhaps with few other correlates of poor reading) RAN-like tests may add sensitivity to the assessment process. This may be true because like reading RAN tasks require visual recognition linked with nearly simultaneous oral output. Popular measures of phonological processing, such as the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (Wagner, Torgeson, Rashotte & Pearson, 2013), include RAN tasks.
Reading Recovery®
This is an intensive program for first graders who struggle to acquire skills via typical reading instruction. The program, which emphasizes whole language over phonics, lasts 12 to 20 weeks of 30 minute-per-day instruction delivered individually by a teacher specially-trained in Reading Recovery methodology. The obvious expense of such an intensive intervention is one barrier to its wide-spread school use. On the other hand, the program has been studied extensively with positive results; a meta-analysis by D’Agostino and Harmey (2016) concluded that the program possessed considerable evidence of efficacy.
The following link from the Reading Recovery Council of North America provides additional information: https://readingrecovery.org/reading-recovery/teaching-children/basic-facts/
Rebound (from stimulant medication)
In the context of treatment with stimulant medications, rebound refers to a temporary exaggeration of symptoms among some children with ADHD as medications (e.g., methylphenidate) are metabolized (“washed out”) of their blood stream. As a result, irritability, frustration intolerance, and hyperactivity may be transiently worsened. This interval may last from for 30 minutes.
Recurrence risk
Recurrence risk quantifies the chance a given condition (e.g., Down syndrome) will recur in a subsequent pregnancy. This proves practically important because many single gene disorders, as well as those caused by polygenetic factors, recur at greater than chance levels in subsequent pregnancies. For example, a large epidemiological study showed that autism spectrum disorder (ASD) recurred among more than 10% of males when there was a brother with ASD (Palmer et al., 2017). This is important for school psychologists because family history sometimes helps to create hypotheses about the nature of a student’s problem (or and at other times adds weight to already-existing hypotheses). In addition, a positive family history of genetic or developmental problems may signal a need to alert families and health care providers. With additional information, some families seek genetic counseling.
Regression to the mean
The statistical expression of the fact that when a child has one extreme test score that a second for that child is likely to be found closer to the mean. For school psychologists, this has important implications for, among other things, examining several test scores on the same individual (e.g., IQ and achievement test scores).
Related services
These are services guaranteed to eligible students under a portion of IDEA that calls for special education and “related services.” Such services are considered for each student during IEP meetings and subsequently offered as needed once special education eligibility is established. The exact words from IDEA follow:
“Related services means transportation and such developmental, corrective, and other supportive services as are required to assist a child with a disability to benefit from special education, and includes speech-language pathology and audiology services, interpreting services, psychological services, physical and occupational therapy, recreation, including therapeutic recreation, early identification and assessment of disabilities in children, counseling services, including rehabilitation counseling, orientation and mobility services, and medical services for diagnostic or evaluation purposes. Related services also include school health services and school nurse services, social work services in schools, and parent counseling and training.”300.34(a)
For school psychologists, the following information regarding “counseling” seems especially relevant:
“Counseling services means services provided by qualified social workers, psychologists, guidance counselors, or other qualified personnel.” 300.34 (c) (2)
The professional providing the related services may need to participate as a member when an IEP team convenes. That is, he/she may be the relevant party for IEP meetings, rather than a special education teacher only serving in that capacity. For example, if the only service provided a student is speech therapy, then it is logical that a speech-language pathologist rather than a special education teacher participates.
The following link from the U.S. Department of Education provides details: https://sites.ed.gov/idea/regs/b/a/300.34
Relative risk
This was originally used by epidemiologists concerning physical illness. It now also finds applications in psychology. Relative risk concerns calculating a ratio comparing the prevalence of an outcome in an exposed group and the prevalence of the same outcome in an unexposed group. For example, assume that being bitten by a certain strain of mosquito was associated with the development of fever. If the prevalence of fever were 10% in those suffering the bite and 0.50% in those not suffering a bite, then a ratio of the two could be calculated (.10/.005) = 20. This might be interpreted as the relative risk associated with exposure; having exposure makes someone 20 times more likely to develop fever.
In psychology, a ratio just like this can be used to characterize risk associated with a particular prior diagnosis. For example, assume that children with a specific learning disability (SLD) have co-existing ADHD approximately 35% of the time. However, ADHD also occurs in children who do not have SLD. Let’s assume that rate (i.e., among children in general or the “population prevalence rate”) is about 6%. Using the logic indicated above, these two values allow for calculation of an increased risk (relative risk) of ADHD associated with the presence of SLD. The calculation is as follows: .35/.06 = 5.8. As suggested by the paragraph above, the interpretation of this value is that children who have an existing diagnosis of SLD have a 5.8 times elevated risk of having ADHD compared to counterpart children with no SLD diagnosis. Relative risk can be applied to all manner of information that has been found in the empirical literature to predict risk (e.g.., a positive family history, a history of trauma, a history of physical illness).
It is probably obvious that application of relative risk has potential diagnostic value. Two children, one with SLD and one without SLD, have differing probability of having ADHD. If a diagnostician’s task is to, for example, rule in or rule out ADHD then the information needed to confirm ADHD for one child is arguably different than that needed for another. Helping diagnosticians make progressive judgements about the presence of conditions as they gain additional information is the heart of Bayesian inference making (see Bayesian nomogram).
The statistically inclined might like the following link: https://academic.oup.com/ndt/article/32/suppl_2/ii13/3056571
Reliable change index (RCI)
This refers to a simple statistical technique used to determine if apparent pre-post score differences are genuine (non-chance). RCI can be important to school psychologists because its sometimes helps establish if a student-level intervention is actually working. This is done by administering a measure two (or more) times. For example, a student who reports extreme anxiety might complete a self-report anxiety scale before receiving an intervention (e.g., relaxation training) and again after the intervention concludes. Similarly, a baseline rating of ADHD symptoms might occur prior to and after use of a medication has commenced.
Detailed coverage, including guidance on calculation, is provided in the following link: https://ir.canterbury.ac.nz/bitstream/handle/10092/13399/12664317_Reliable%20Change%5ETutorial%5ENZPsS%5E2016.pdf?sequence=1
Resilience
A hypothetical variable that reflects each human’s capability to respond to stress or trauma by springing back to prior levels of functioning. Well developed resistance to stress or lack of vulnerability to negative life events, is understandably considered a psychological strength.
Consider the following link from Harvard University:https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/resilience/
Remeron® (see anti-depressant medications)
Response to Intervention (RTI)
RTI is a critically important general education initiative (also see entry for specific learning disability, where RTI represents a method for identifying students). RTI is a multi-level approach for providing increasingly intensive academic supports that faithfully corresponds to learners’ needs. As such, RTI is sometimes considered to be just one example of the broader concept of “multi-tiered systems of supports” or MTSS. It involves universal screening and regular progress monitoring to place students at one of three levels regarding each academic skill area (e.g., reading, math, written expression):
- Tier 1 (core instruction)
- Tier 2 (group instruction)
- Tier 3 (intensive instruction, delivered to small groups or individual students)
Fewer and fewer students receive instruction at each of the tiers, and instruction at each higher tier is more specialized, more intensive, and provided for more minutes per week. Tier 3 often involves students who have been identified as meeting criteria for special education (e.g., SLD). The primary goal of RTI is to prevent academic problems from appearing and to remedy nascent problems in the educational mainstream (student’s home classroom). A secondary goal is to provide data able to inform the referral process and assist in decision making about SLD services (Fletcher & Vaughn, 2009).
The following link from the RTI Action Network provides additional information: http://www.rtinetwork.org/essential/tieredinstruction/tiered-instruction-and-intervention-rti-model
Reversal (ABAB) design
In applied behavior analysis, a reversal design refers to a single-subject data analysis that involves two reversals. An ABAB design involves establishing a stable baseline condition (A), followed by an intervention (B), followed by another baseline, and then finally followed by return to the intervention. Consistent behavior changes co-occurring with phase changes (i.e., shifts from A to B and then again from B to A) provides researchers (and sometimes practicing school psychologists) evidence about the effect of their intervention.
Because ABAB designs involve reversals (withdrawal of the intervention used in the first B phase) and then return of intervention (after the second A phase) it is often possible to infer if the intervention actually caused improvement in behavior. Although reversal designs help school psychologists to reach strong conclusions, in reality they are rarely used in school-based practice. Instead, simplified variations that might be thought of as AB designs probably typify real-life school psychology practice. A teacher, for example, may indicate that an inattentive student “seemed more attentive” when she was moved to the front of the room (i.e., the B condition seemed better than the A condition [note that in this scenario no data were actually collected]). The inference was that the seating move caused enhanced attention. Logically, however, other factors (many of them unknowable) may be responsible. The lessons may have become easier or previously unknown sleep problems may have resolved at almost the same time the seat move change was made.
School psychologists can help teachers and parents with whom they consult to think logically and gather information when important behavior changes are addressed. ABAB designs offer compelling logic. Considering them helps practitioners remember to be cautious when less meticulous data collection procedures are used.
See the following link for more details: https://allpsych.com/research-methods/singlesubjectdesign/ababdesign/
Reversal (of letters, words)
Reversals concern directional confusion in printed matter. A distinction is sometimes made between: (1.) static reversals and (2.) kinesthetic reversals. The former concerns a receptive error in which “d” might be called “b” or “was” is read a “saw.” In contrast, the latter concerns when a “p” is written as a “q.” In other words, static reversals concern receptive errors, kinesthetic expressive errors. Note that reversals also sometimes occur in numerals (numbers). Failures of working memory, both phonological and orthographic loops, may contribute to reversals when reading problems are present (Brooks, Berninger & Abbott, 2011).
Rexulti® (see anti-psychotic medications)
Risperdal® (see anti-psychotic medications)
Ritalin® (see stimulants and other ADHD medications)
Rosenthal (pygmalion) effect
The Rosenthal or pygmalion effect concerns the notion of self-fulfilling prophecies, specifically that low expectations might contribute to actual low student achievement. This intuitively plausible idea seemed to receive empirical support from research conducted in the 1960s when narrowly-focused investigations were conducted. One study study randomly assigned students to conditions in which their teachers were led to believe they would become “bloomers,” in other words soon blossom with cognitive growth (Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968). In contrast to students who were randomly assigned to a control condition (i.e., who are not characterized as “bloomers”), those taught by a teacher with higher expectations (the bloomer group) had better scores on year-end IQ testing. This original research, and much that soon followed, has been criticized for methodological weaknesses (Spitz, 1999). Furthermore, IQ differences between experimental and control groups in the original study were fairly small, possible methodological problems notwithstanding.
Nonetheless, the prospect of raising students IQs via higher expectations still seems to resonate. Achievement, not IQ, might be a different matter. For example, one or more students in a classroom might (for any number of reasons such as gender or ethnic bias) engender negative expectations on the part of his teacher, which in turn might constrain his/her acquisition of academic skills. Obviously, part of psychologists’ duty as consultants is to assess possibilities such as this when involved with individual students and to take steps as necessary. More broadly, the notion of expectation and achievement seems to still be operative (consider the rationale for the No Child Left Behind legislation signed by President George W. Bush). System wide efforts to assure that every student (regardless of race, ethnicity, language background, gender and disability status) is supported and filled with expectations for academic and life success would seem to be an obligation of every school psychologist.
The related concept of stereotype threat is also relevant (see separate entry).
