Glossary

a noun used to refer to an abstract (non-touchable, non-physical) thing

a form of language use where the subject is the agent

a power technique where, instead of responding to the logic of the argument itself, a speaker attacks the person making the argument, focusing on personal qualities that have nothing to do with the argument

names or titles we use when we address other people, like 'mister', 'buddy', 'ma'am', or 'honey'. They can be respectful, neutral, or intimate.

who the speaker or writer is addressing or speaking to, part of the audience (which may include non-addressees)

a word that describes or modifies a noun, e.g. 'happy', 'big', or 'unbelievable'

a phrase of one or more adjective, sometimes with a modifying adverb, functioning together as a complement

the alignment or correspondence of a subject and its verb, or of a pronoun and its antecedent, in person, number, case, and gender

a referent that comes before its pronoun. More common than postcedents.

a determiner that specifies whether a noun is definite (specific) or indefinite (general)

an adjective that comes directly before the noun that it modifies, as opposed to a predicative adjective

a helping verb that plays a grammatical function to a main verb. Auxiliaries in English are forms of 'be', 'have', 'do', and the modals.

the plain, uninflected form of an adjective

a linguistic register found in governmental and traditional institutions that is characterized by excessive jargon, euphemism, and weasel language, that is, language that obfuscates agency, authority, and responsibility

in grammar is a category of syntactic function, i.e. what role the word or phrase plays in the sentence. In general, subject case is for what does the action, and object case is for what receives the action.

the deliberate suppression, prohibition, or control of access to media, art, film, literature, news, etc. that is considered offensive, threatening, or unacceptable

articles, demonstratives, and possessives

an element of a sentence that has a subject and a predicate. Sentences can have one or more clauses.

a part of speech that cannot be added to: determiners, pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions

the use of a familiar perspective or narrative to make sense of and evaluate new information

a noun that refers to a group but is in the singular

a noun that is not one-of-a-kind, i.e., not proper. In English they are only capitalized at the beginning of a sentence.

the -er or more - form of an adjective used for comparison

conceptual metaphors used by opposing sides of an issue or argument that may produce cognitive dissonance when juxtaposed

a word or phrase that follows a verb and may be required by it, e.g. an object or a subject complement

a sentence of at least one clause that expresses a complete thought

a sentence comprised of a main clause and at least one dependent clause, connected by a subordinating conjunction

a noun phrase comprised of two or more nouns

a sentence comprised of two or more independent clauses, connected by a coordinating conjunction

the theory that metaphors are fundamental to how humans conceptualize the world and their existence in it

a noun used to refer to a concrete (touchable, physical) thing

Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms or supports one's prior beliefs or values: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confirmation_bias

the result of excessive use of doublespeak, especially when opposite terminology is used deliberately; it can also result from gaslighting. It can ultimately lead to mistrust and insecurity about whether there is an actual truth.

an association or suggestion of a word or idea

the skills and knowledge to consume goods and services wisely and safely, and to spend and save money free of exploitation

a word that refers to something with a concrete or abstract meaning; content words are open class

where, when, with what, by whom, and to whom something is said, rather than just the what

a word that connects two words, phrases, or independent clauses; they are: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, & so

examination of a body or database of language use by means of analytical tools in order to identify patterns and trends not apparent through conventional analytic reading techniques

a noun that can be counted, be singular or plural, and modified with determiners like 'many' or 'few'

critical examination of language use as texts or discourse (at levels higher than a sentence), often in consideration of social context

critical understanding of the social, political, and ideological aspects of language, linguistic variation, and discourse

the determiner 'the', usually used to mean that the noun referent is known

a determiner that specifies which one or ones out of a group according to proximity

this, that, these, & those. They can also be determiners.

are pronouns that point towards specific things and are marked for number (singular or plural) and proximity to the speaker (near or far). They include this, that, these, & those, and can also be demonstrative determiners.

the literal or actual meaning of a word

refers to whether a metaphor is obviously stated (shallow) or if it points to a deeper understanding (deep)

a word that specifies or determines which noun, e.g. 'the', 'a', 'whose', 'many', etc.

the public discussion including texts -- print and spoken -- that surround a particular topic

Information that is purposefully false and meant to mislead or deceive, sometimes equated with propaganda. Recently it's been called "fake news".

discussing something else or changing the subject; doublespeak can be considered a form of diversion

euphemistic doublespeak that covertly signals meaning only to receptive audiences

a language power technique involving the renaming of a concept that obscures its original negative meaning, allows for ambiguous interpretation, and may shift responsibility as to its cause.

the substitution of a disagreeable, offensive, or disparaging expression for an agreeable or inoffensive one, e.g. 'kick the bucket' for 'die'

an echo chamber is a situation in which beliefs are amplified or reinforced by communication and repetition inside a closed system and are insulated from rebuttal. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)

a term or phrase for someone or something that includes a descriptor and usually the name of the person or thing

an agreeable or inoffensive expression substituted for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant, e.g. 'pass away' for 'die'

the use of 'we' and equivalent first person plural pronouns to refer to the speaker and others, NOT including the addressee, i.e. 'I and others, but not you'

a fallacious way of presenting choices that implies there are two, and only two, opposing options; also called false dilemma or either/or

a form of pronoun (usually 2P) that is used for informal interaction, implying equality. Until the 1800s in English, 'thou' was the familiar 2P pronoun form in contrast to the formal form 'you'. Other languages like Spanish, French, and German still have distinct familiar and formal 'you' pronouns.

in English, the term for the pronouns 'she, hers' and the determiner 'her'

the symbolic or metaphorical sense of a word, as opposed to its literal or denotative sense

First person (or '1P') means from the perspective of 'I'. 1P pronouns are I, me, mine, myself, we, us, ours, & ourselves.

a form of pronoun (usually 2P) that is used for formal interaction, implying respect and distance. Until the 1800s in English, 'you' was the formal 2P pronoun form in contrast to the informal form 'thou'. Other languages like Spanish, French, and German still have distinct familiar and formal 'you' pronouns.

a word or word part that plays a grammatical function; corresponds to closed class

in English grammar refers to the sex of the human referent -- male (he, him, his), female (she, her, hers), or neutral (they, them, theirs).

pronouns that can refer to humans without specifying their gender, e.g. English 'they' and proposed pronouns like 'hir', 'xe', and 'co'

the use of 'you' to mean 'one' or 'anyone'-- addressing not a specific individual but anyone

a type of written or spoken text that is socially recognized to have particular purposes, audiences, and authors, e.g. academic essay, news article, social media post, sermon, poem

a VERB-ing form that acts as a noun

an adjective that describes a quality that can be graded or in degrees, e.g. 'hot'. A gradable adjective can be modified with 'very'

a feature of grammar such as parts of speech or syntactic functions

a system where all nouns are assigned a gender, even when their referents are non-animal, lessening ambiguity and supporting coherence across discourse

the key noun of a noun phrase; all other words of the phrase can be removed, leaving this, and the phrase will still retain meaning

a title or address form like 'Dr.', 'Mrs.', or 'sir' that shows respect to the addressee or referent

a language power technique or figure of speech that exaggerates the facts of an event, idea, or person to garner an emotional response like fear, shock, concern, or amusement from the audience

systems of ideas and ideals about how the world is and how it should be, e.g. liberalism, conservatism, socialism, capitalism, colonialism, etc.

the grammatical voice used to give commands in English. 2P uses just the plain verb (e.g. 'go!'), and 1P uses 'let's' (e.g. 'let's go!').

the use of 'we' and equivalent first person plural pronouns to refer to the speaker and others that may include the addressee (i.e., when 'we' means 'you and I')

a sentence-like string of words that does not have a required element, e.g. a subject or a predicate, even though it may be or imply a complete thought

the determiner 'a' or 'an', usually used to mean that the noun referent is new

determiners that can specify new referents, including the indefinite article but also other quantifiers

a pronoun that specifies a quantity of a referent, or an unspecific referent. These include the SANE-BOT compounds.

a changed form of a verb (i.e. conjugation) or of a noun or adjective (i.e. declension) to show grammatical information

an adverb that intensifies an adjective's power, e.g. really, very, extremely, or totally

a question word functioning as a pronoun, e.g. who, what, which, whom, whose

address forms that show informality and intimacy between the speaker and the addressee, e.g. 'dear', 'honey', 'baby', 'bro', 'girl', etc.

a verb that does not require an object

an exception to the rule or pattern

the specialized words and linguistic registers associated with an activity or group of experts that is difficult to understand for outsiders

a technique of using language to persuade, convince or otherwise influence the listener, reader, or interlocutor (audience)

the vocabulary (lexicon) and the grammar of a language seen as interconnected and interdependent

a verb like 'be', 'become', 'seem', 'appear', 'smell', 'taste', etc. that is followed by a subject complement

the most obvious, concrete, or actual sense of a word

an argument or reasoning that can be proven wrong through logic; they often involve weasel language and other deceptive techniques

in English, the term for the pronouns 'he, him, his' and the determiner 'his'

a noun that refers to a thing that when used in non-count refers to the substance and must be quantified, but when used in count refers to a singular serving, item, or piece

a rhetorical device that enables us to connect two disparate words, concepts or things together such that some sort of transference of qualities or activity takes place from one to the other

the use of the name of an attribute or part of a thing to mean the whole thing or something related to the concept, or vice-versa, e.g. 'Washington' for 'the US government', or 'hand' for 'applause'

Information that is not true or partially untrue. Misinformation may be unintentional, unlike disinformation, which is purposeful.

a helping verb that shows speaker stance towards a main verb. In English they are will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, and must.

in grammar, an optional word that modifies or alters the meaning of another word

a multiplier number word like 'double' or 'three times' used as a determiner

the pejorative or derogatory use of an epithet, that is, a descriptive name, to address or refer to someone

a system where the biological, ascribed, or chosen gender of the referent implicates the grammar form used to refer to the referent

in English, the term for the singular pronouns 'it, its' and the determiner 'its'

in English, the term for pronouns used to refer to any gender, i.e., all except masculine and feminine pronouns

a short name used in place of a full name, usually to show affection or solidarity, but also to show power over the person being nicknamed

a noun that cannot be counted without a quantifier, is singular, and is modified with determiners like 'much' or 'little'

an adjective that describes a quality that cannot be graded or thought of in degrees, e.g. 'dead'.

a person, place, thing, or concept

a noun, e.g. 'barbecue', often with other words around it, e.g. 'the best barbecue in the world', usually functioning as a subject or object

in grammar refers to the quality of being singular or plural (i.e. more than one)

the receiver of the action or doing, as opposed to the subject

me, you, him, her, it, us, them, who, whom -- any personal pronoun that can serve as an object

not mentioning or answering something; euphemistic doublespeak can entail omission because it is by definition avoidance of another term

a part of speech that can be added to: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs

refers to whether a metaphor is newly invented by a user or is conventionally understood

the view that metaphors are extra, superfluous, or not fundamental

a grammatical category assignable to every use of every word

VERB-ing forms that act as verbs, as in progressive aspect and in participial phrases

determiners that specify a selection or part of the noun

a form of language use where an object becomes the new subject and the original subject and its agency is deemphasized or omitted

in grammar refers to perspective of the speaker or writer: first person (e.g. I, we), second person (e.g. you), and third person (e.g. it, they)

the pronouns I, you, he, she, it, we, they, me, him, her, us, them, marked for person, gender, number, and case

a pronoun like 'I, them, yours' that is often marked for person (first, second, third), number (singular or plural), case (subject, object, possessive), and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter, neutral)

a power or propaganda technique used to convince audiences that the speaker/subject is common or average, e.g., if a politician advertises themselves eating street food at a fair or taking public transportation

two or more, as opposed to singular, which is one

a term used by cultural and political conservatives to label and dismiss new, euphemistic terms created by progressives to replace older terms considered racist, sexist, or otherwise discriminatory

a possessive word acting as a determiner; it must agree in person, number, and gender with the noun

the pronouns mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs, & whose, marked for person, number, and gender. Not to be confused with possessive determiners my, your, his, her, its, our, their, & whose, although his, its, & whose are the same.

a pronoun that means 'something belonging to' in the possessive case, marked for person (first, second, third), number (singular or plural), and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter, neutral). In English they are 'mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs'; note that 'my, your, his, her, its, our, their' are technically possessive determiners, not pronouns, because they modify a noun.

determiners that, if in a string, come after the central determiner; numbers

an adjective that follows its noun; rare in English

a referent that comes after its pronoun

a determiner that comes first in a string of them, usually referring to amounts

in a clause, the verb plus its complement

an adjective that follows a linking verb and is part of a subject complement, describing the subject

the object of a preposition, i.e., the head noun of the phrase that follows a preposition

a preposition plus a noun phrase as its complement or object. PPs can function as adverbials, modifying verbs or adjectives.

the perspective that language should be used one way or another depending on the author's purpose, audience, etc.

a word like 'we', 'hers', or 'someone' that represents and replaces a noun or noun phrase

Information that deliberately promotes a particular perspective, regardless of its veracity.

a noun of which there is only one; in English they are capitalized

a word or phrase that specifies how many, how much, or what part of a noun is being referred to

determiners that specify how many or which

the noun or noun phrase that a pronoun replaces, represents, or refers to

the 'self' and 'selves' pronouns

pronouns that include the -self or -selves suffix. They are marked for number (singular or plural), and can only be used as appositives and objects, not subjects.

a kind of language used in a particular situation for a particular purpose

that, which, who, and whom when they are used as pronouns to relate two clauses

address forms like honorifics and formal pronouns that show respect from (or distance between) the speaker to the addressee

the size of what a metaphor refers to -- from a single situation (small) to a larger, broader phenomenon (large)

blaming a person or group that cannot defend themself for a problem they did not actually cause

Second person (or '2P') means from the perspective of 'you'. 2P pronouns are you, yours, yourself, & yourselves.

a string of words that contains at least one clause to express a complete thought

a sentence that equates to one clause

one, as opposed to plural, which is two or more

the use of the pronouns they, them, and theirs to refer to a single individual, which allows not having to refer to the individual's gender identity

the use of 'you' to mean a specific addressee that the speaker/writer knows or implies they know

the human tendency to attribute a single or a few traits to an entire group of people. Stereotyping can be dangerously dehumanizing because it overlooks diversity and individual complexity.

the linguistic means by which humans share ideas, humor, beliefs, and histories, and relate to one another

the actor, doer, or primary noun or pronoun of a clause. In English it comes first.

a word or phrase that comes after a linking verb (e.g. 'is') that describes, or is equatable, to the subject

I, you, he, she, it, we, they, who -- any personal pronoun that can serve as a subject

the normal word order of English sentences

a word that connects a dependent or subordinate clause to a main clause, e.g. although, after, before, because, if, once, since, until, unless, & when

the "-est" or "(the) most -" form of an adjective used for superlatives

a word that has a similar meaning to another word, e.g. 'glad' for 'happy'

the arrangement or order of words in language

Third person (or '3P') means from the perspective of 'he, she, it', or 'they'. 3P pronouns are he, him, his, himself, she, her, hers, herself, it, its, itself, they, them, themself, & themselves. 'Who', 'whom', and indefinite pronouns are also 3P.

a verb that requires or 'takes' an object

the state of being organized into groups defined by common identities and loyalty to the tribe over all else

a language power technique that relies on false dichotomy fallacy to build in-group solidarity and identity through contrast with outsiders

a word that describes an action, state, or occurrence

a verb plus any required complement and modifier (e.g. an adverb). A predicate is a VP, but not all VPs are predicates.

language that allows the speaker or writer to be vague, to generalize, and to hide or mask authority on purpose