2. Sentence Basics

The purpose of this module is to introduce the basics of English grammar, as a foundation for learning about the parts of speech. Each section is linked to an interactive activity, and the module concludes with comprehensive activities as well as key points and key concepts for review purposes.

2.1 Sentences, subjects, & predicates

A sentence is a complete thought with two parts: a subject – the actor or thing that is doing something, and a predicate – the doing of the something. At its most basic, a subject is a noun or pronoun and a predicate is a verb plus a complement – usually an object or a subject complement. A complete sentence has both a subject and a predicate, but an incomplete sentence is missing either one. In standard written English we indicate a complete sentence with a full stop (a period) at the end.

• They live. – ‘they’ is a pronoun/the subject, ‘live’ is a verb/the predicate.
• We laugh heartily. – ‘we’ is a pronoun/the subject, ‘laugh’ is a verb, ‘heartily’ is an adverb describing how we laughed, and ‘laugh heartily’ is the predicate.
• Kids love pizza. – ‘kids’ is a noun/the subject, ‘love’ is a verb, ‘pizza’ is the object, and ‘love pizza’ is the predicate.

⇒ Go to Activity 2.1

2.2 Clauses

A clause has a subject and predicate and is part of a sentence. To express a complete thought, a sentence can be simple with just one clause, or it can be a multi-clause compound or complex sentence. The clauses in a compound sentence are connected with the coordinating conjunctions for, and, nor, but, or, yet, or so, while the clauses of a complex sentence are connected with subordinating conjunctions like because, although, or since. While the sentences in 2.1 above are simple, the following are multi-clause sentences:

• We laugh heartily and we dance merrily. – ‘we laugh heartily’ is a clause and ‘we dance merrily’ is a clause, combined into a compound sentence by the coordinating conjunction ‘and’.
• Although they like hot dogs, kids love pizza. – ‘although they like hot dogs’ is a subordinate clause set off by the subordinating conjunction ‘although’, and ‘kids love pizza’ is a clause. This is a complex sentence.
• I knew that they were zombies. – ‘I knew’ is a clause and ‘that they were zombies’ is a complement clause set off by the conjunction ‘that’. This is a complex sentence.
• Having taken the potion, they live. – ‘they live’ is a clause and ‘having taken the potion’ is a clause (technically a “subjectless non-finite clause”). This is a complex sentence.

⇒ Go to Activity 2.2

2.3 Phrases and Agreement

Subjects and objects are technically noun phrases (NP). They can be a single word or a string of words, each with a ‘head noun’.

• The braindead zombies live. – ‘the braindead zombies’ is a noun phrase/the subject. ‘Zombies’ is the head noun.
• Kids love pizza with lots of cheese on it. – ‘Kids’ is a noun phrase and the phrase’s head noun; it is functioning as the subject. ‘Pizza with lots of cheese on it’ is a noun phrase functioning as the object; its head noun is ‘pizza’.

At the minimum, a predicate technically includes a verb phrase (VP), that is, the verb(s) and possible complements, objects, and/or adverbials. In the first sentence above, ‘live’ is a verb, the VP, and the predicate. In the second sentence above, ‘love’ is the verb and ‘love pizza with lots of cheese on it’ is the VP and the predicate.

Subjects and verbs must agree in person and number for BE verbs (e.g. I am, you/we/they are, he/she/it is) and in number for all third person subjects in the simple present. For example:

• I am. I be.
• You were. You was.
• She has. She have.
• He lives. He live.
• The kid loves pizza. The kid love pizza.
• Kids love pizza. Kids loves pizza.

⇒ Go to Activity 2.3

2.4 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs

A transitive use of a verb means that it takes an object that the verb action is done to. With transitive verbs, the verb plus the object are a verb phrase that functions as the predicate.

• They have money. – ‘money’ is the object of ‘have’, and ‘have money’ is the predicate
• Are you watching TV? – ‘TV’ is the object of ‘watch’, and ‘are…watching TV’ is the predicate
• We don’t speak French. – ‘French’ is the object of ‘speak’, and ‘don’t speak French’ is the predicate

The ‘what’ test. If you can ask ‘What (do/be/have/can, etc.) (the subject) (verb)?’, e.g. ‘What do they have? What are you watching? What don’t you speak?’, you know that the verb is transitive, and the answer is the object.

The object pronoun test. Another test for whether a verb is transitive is if it can be followed with an object pronoun, which are: me, you, him, her, it, them, & us, e.g.:

• They have it.
• I like him.
• Did you see them? 
• She looked her. 

Therefore, ‘like’ and ‘see’ are transitive here, but ‘look’ is not.

In contrast, an intransitive verb does not take an object.

• The bus departed.
• We talked all night. 
• I slept a good eight hours last night. 

In this case, ‘What did the bus?’, ‘What did we talk?’, or ‘What did you sleep?’ do not make sense. The phrases ‘all night’ and ‘a good eight hours’ are answering ‘when’ or ‘how’, and so they are adverbs that modify the verb, not objects that receive the action.

Some verbs can be both transitive with an object, and intransitive without one, e.g.:

• We eat at 7 pm. (‘eat’ can be transitive but here it is intransitive. ‘at 7 pm’ answers ‘when’, not ‘what we eat’)

Other verbs are only used transitively and so must have their object stated, e.g. ‘release’ and ‘carry’.

• Mr. Burns released the hounds. 
• Mr. Burns released. 
• Yes, we carry it. 
• Yes, we carry.

⇒ Go to Activity 2.4

2.5 Linking Verbs

A linking verb is one that is followed by a subject complement that describes the subject. The verb plus the complement are a VP that functions as the predicate.

• My mother is a doctor.  – ‘a doctor’ describes the subject ‘my mother’, so the verb is (be) is a linking verb

‘be’ is the most common linking verb, when it is not acting as an auxiliary/helping verb. Other common linking verbs include ‘seem’, ‘appear’, ‘feel’, ‘look’, ‘smell’, ‘sound’, and ‘become’.

The ‘become’ test. If you can replace the verb with ‘become’ and the sentence makes sense, the verb is linking.

Some verbs can be used as either transitive or linking verbs, with very different meanings, e.g.:

• The girl felt sick. (‘sick’ describes ‘girl’, so ‘feel’ is linking)
• The girl felt the cold air. (‘the cold air’ is ‘what the girl felt’, so it is the object of ‘feel’, which is thus transitive)
• The dog smells bad. (‘bad’ describes ‘the dog’, so ‘smell’ is linking)
• The dog smells everything. (‘everything’ is the object, answering the question ‘what does the dog smell?’. ‘Smell’ is thus transitive)

⇒ Go to Activity 2.5

2.6 Sentences in language power techniques

One way to grasp the basics of English sentences is to consider how they are typically structured grammatically in the language power technique of metaphors. A metaphor is a rhetorical device that enables us to connect two disparate words, concepts or things together such that some sort of transference of qualities or activity takes place from one to the other. Metaphors can function as language power techniques when they are used to frame arguments and tell stories. The most basic forms of metaphor equate an abstract idea with something more concrete, so that the abstract idea can be conceptualized more easily. For example:

Life is a highway.

We use linking verbs when stating metaphors, especially forms of ‘be’ and ‘become’, since they link the subject with the subject complement. The sentence above could be restated:

Life is a highway.

subject – linking verb – subject complement

Compare this with sentences that derive from the metaphor:

1. Life goes quickly.
2. Life brings many surprises.

In sentence 1, the verb ‘go’ is intransitive, and ‘quickly’ is an adverbial complement that answers how life goes. The predicate is an intransitive verb + adverbial. The verb ‘go’ cannot be transitive, because you cannot ‘go’ something. In sentence 2, however, the verb ‘bring’ is transitive, and ‘many surprises’ is the object, answering ‘what did life bring?’. The predicate is a transitive verb + object.

⇒ Go to Comprehensive Activities for 2. Sentence Basics

Module author: Jonathon Reinhardt

Last updated: 28 October 2022

This module is part of Critical Language Awareness: Language Power Techniques and English Grammar, an open educational resource offered by the Clarify Initiative, a privately funded project with the goal of raising critical language awareness and media literacy among students of language and throughout society.